urban areas only. Additionally, wind turbines for renewable energy are inefficient
because of unstable and weak wind energy in normally tropical zones.
In the same sense, biofuels, such as bioethanol and biodiesel, are the most
problematic source of renewable energy because of (1) a low EROI, (2) competition
with food/feed, and (3) LULUCF practices (i.e., land clearance).
Trees are the best structures for collecting diffuse and concentrated solar energy;
they are also useful for cooling down land surfaces, water preservation, protecting
land surfaces from erosion, promoting nutrient cycling and conservation, and carbon
sequestration. Thus, while forests have a pivotal function, it is clear that they also
have multiple functions for mitigating (through carbon sequestration) and adapting
to (through natural capital dependency) climate change.
The TREE model defines the functions of a “bioapparatus,” with a solar panel, an
air conditioner, a water reservoir, a water dam, a solid dam, a fertilizer factory, and a
carbon sequestration facility. Altogether, these components are referred to as natural
capital (Fig. 6.10).
The functions of the TREE bioapparatus are as follows.
Solar panel: Solar panels play an important role in collecting light and converting
the energy from light to electricity. The leaves of a tree’s canopy have a function
that is equivalent to that of a solar panel, and the photosynthesis that occurs within
the leaves represents the conversion of energy. The first event is the absorption of
light by a photoreceptor molecule. The principal photoreceptor in the chloroplasts
of most green plants is chlorophyll. Chlorophyll molecules are highly effective
photoreceptors because they contain networks of alternating single and double
bonds. They have absorption bands in the visible region of the spectrum, where
the solar radiation reaching earth is maximal (Berg et al. 2002). Leaves and solar
panels have a common function, since both absorb sunlight and convert it into
different energy forms. While solar panels typically have smooth surfaces, leaves
have very small wrinkles and folds that allow maximum light absorption. Leaves
have evolved to expose the largest possible area of green tissue to light, and the
entry of CO 2 to the leaf is controlled by small holes in the lower epidermis called
stomata (Johnson 2016). It is noteworthy that solar panels require maintenance
due to equipment breakdown and the replacement of panels over time.
Battery: A challenge of current technology is how to create high-performance, highcapacity, and safe batteries for energy storage. However, efficient batteries with
safe storage capacity already exist in the world in the form of trees and forests.
Energy is stored in trees in the form of woody biomass. The fundamental task of
photosynthesis is to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates with energy
absorbed from the sun (Govindjee and Coleman 1990). During photosynthesis,
trees take atmospheric CO 2 and store it in woody (branches, stems, and woody
roots) and nonwoody (foliage and fine roots) parts (Dewar and Cannell 1992).
The energy derived from photosynthesis is mostly stored in plant trunks or stems
in the form of biomass. This activity is similar to a battery that saves energy.
Air conditioner: Forests play the role of a natural air conditioner. Trees not only
provide shade but also help cool the surrounding area through the process of
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M. Osaki et al.
because of unstable and weak wind energy in normally tropical zones.
In the same sense, biofuels, such as bioethanol and biodiesel, are the most
problematic source of renewable energy because of (1) a low EROI, (2) competition
with food/feed, and (3) LULUCF practices (i.e., land clearance).
Trees are the best structures for collecting diffuse and concentrated solar energy;
they are also useful for cooling down land surfaces, water preservation, protecting
land surfaces from erosion, promoting nutrient cycling and conservation, and carbon
sequestration. Thus, while forests have a pivotal function, it is clear that they also
have multiple functions for mitigating (through carbon sequestration) and adapting
to (through natural capital dependency) climate change.
The TREE model defines the functions of a “bioapparatus,” with a solar panel, an
air conditioner, a water reservoir, a water dam, a solid dam, a fertilizer factory, and a
carbon sequestration facility. Altogether, these components are referred to as natural
capital (Fig. 6.10).
The functions of the TREE bioapparatus are as follows.
Solar panel: Solar panels play an important role in collecting light and converting
the energy from light to electricity. The leaves of a tree’s canopy have a function
that is equivalent to that of a solar panel, and the photosynthesis that occurs within
the leaves represents the conversion of energy. The first event is the absorption of
light by a photoreceptor molecule. The principal photoreceptor in the chloroplasts
of most green plants is chlorophyll. Chlorophyll molecules are highly effective
photoreceptors because they contain networks of alternating single and double
bonds. They have absorption bands in the visible region of the spectrum, where
the solar radiation reaching earth is maximal (Berg et al. 2002). Leaves and solar
panels have a common function, since both absorb sunlight and convert it into
different energy forms. While solar panels typically have smooth surfaces, leaves
have very small wrinkles and folds that allow maximum light absorption. Leaves
have evolved to expose the largest possible area of green tissue to light, and the
entry of CO 2 to the leaf is controlled by small holes in the lower epidermis called
stomata (Johnson 2016). It is noteworthy that solar panels require maintenance
due to equipment breakdown and the replacement of panels over time.
Battery: A challenge of current technology is how to create high-performance, highcapacity, and safe batteries for energy storage. However, efficient batteries with
safe storage capacity already exist in the world in the form of trees and forests.
Energy is stored in trees in the form of woody biomass. The fundamental task of
photosynthesis is to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates with energy
absorbed from the sun (Govindjee and Coleman 1990). During photosynthesis,
trees take atmospheric CO 2 and store it in woody (branches, stems, and woody
roots) and nonwoody (foliage and fine roots) parts (Dewar and Cannell 1992).
The energy derived from photosynthesis is mostly stored in plant trunks or stems
in the form of biomass. This activity is similar to a battery that saves energy.
Air conditioner: Forests play the role of a natural air conditioner. Trees not only
provide shade but also help cool the surrounding area through the process of
214
M. Osaki et al.