9.1
Introduction
With the modernization and advancement of technology lead to most serious
environmental pollution problems facing humanity and other life forms on earth.
Environmental pollution is defined as “the contamination of the physical and
biological components of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that normal
environmental processes are adversely affected” (Kemp 1998). Examples of environmental pollutants are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide and
particulate matter, chlorofluorocarbons, heavy metals, monoaromatic hydrocarbons,
polyaromatic hydrocarbon, volatile organic compounds (Yunus et al. 2012). The rise
in human population density and anthropogenic activity has led to more environmental deterioration (Sherbinin et al. 2007). Environmental pollutants have various
adverse health effects like respiratory disorders, cardiovascular disorders, physical
and mental disorders, organ dysfunction, neurological disorder, cancer (Kelishadi
et al. 2009; Kargarfard et al. 2011; WHO 2013).
Monoaromatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons are of special concerns because
some of them are highly toxic and persistent nature (USEPA 1984; Ma et al. 2010;
Valavanidis et al. 2008; Masih et al. 2016). Main sources of hydrocarbon contamination in environment are crude oil, petroleum-based products, pesticides, or different harmful organic matters which are discharged into the water bodies as waste
(Al-anzi and Siang 2017; Osin et al. 2017). In petroleum industries, oil spillage
during exploration, transportation, storage, and refining of crude oil, whether accidentally or due to human activities, leads to main cause of hydrocarbon contamination of soil, water, and air pollution (Al-anzi and Siang 2017; Osin et al. 2017). The
crude oil/petroleum sludge contains 200–300 different compounds, mainly aliphatic
series (C1-C50), monoaromatics (BTEX), polyaromatic hydrocarbons, phenols,
volatile organic compounds, and heavy metals (Younis et al. 2020). Aliphatic series
compounds (in the form of gases, liquids, or solids) have relatively low toxicity and
are biodegradable. BTEX are group of four volatile organic compounds: benzene,
toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (mixture of ortho, para, and meta). BTEX have
been identified as toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic (Masih et al. 2016), and are
listed as Hazardous Air Pollutants in the US Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.
United States Environmental Protection Agency reported that the source for 47–75%
of BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene) detected in environment is
petroleum-based industries (Younis et al. 2020; Jafarinejad 2017a, b). Polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of organic compounds consisting of two
or more fused aromatic rings, and are referred to as persistent organic pollutants
(POPs) because of their chemical stability and biodegradation resistance (Borji et al.
2020). PAH contaminants pose a significant hazard to the environment and human
health because of their chemical stability and biodegradation resistance (USEPA
1984; Ma et al. 2010; Valavanidis et al. 2008).
Hydrocarbons have been widespread used in our day to day lives. They are the
main source of fuel for the industrial and manufacturing sector. Thus, we need
technologies for hydrocarbon pollution prevention which able to monitor and
treatment of hydrocarbon contaminants in the environment. In the past two decades,
9 Application of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Removal of Hydrocarbons
207
Introduction
With the modernization and advancement of technology lead to most serious
environmental pollution problems facing humanity and other life forms on earth.
Environmental pollution is defined as “the contamination of the physical and
biological components of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that normal
environmental processes are adversely affected” (Kemp 1998). Examples of environmental pollutants are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide and
particulate matter, chlorofluorocarbons, heavy metals, monoaromatic hydrocarbons,
polyaromatic hydrocarbon, volatile organic compounds (Yunus et al. 2012). The rise
in human population density and anthropogenic activity has led to more environmental deterioration (Sherbinin et al. 2007). Environmental pollutants have various
adverse health effects like respiratory disorders, cardiovascular disorders, physical
and mental disorders, organ dysfunction, neurological disorder, cancer (Kelishadi
et al. 2009; Kargarfard et al. 2011; WHO 2013).
Monoaromatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons are of special concerns because
some of them are highly toxic and persistent nature (USEPA 1984; Ma et al. 2010;
Valavanidis et al. 2008; Masih et al. 2016). Main sources of hydrocarbon contamination in environment are crude oil, petroleum-based products, pesticides, or different harmful organic matters which are discharged into the water bodies as waste
(Al-anzi and Siang 2017; Osin et al. 2017). In petroleum industries, oil spillage
during exploration, transportation, storage, and refining of crude oil, whether accidentally or due to human activities, leads to main cause of hydrocarbon contamination of soil, water, and air pollution (Al-anzi and Siang 2017; Osin et al. 2017). The
crude oil/petroleum sludge contains 200–300 different compounds, mainly aliphatic
series (C1-C50), monoaromatics (BTEX), polyaromatic hydrocarbons, phenols,
volatile organic compounds, and heavy metals (Younis et al. 2020). Aliphatic series
compounds (in the form of gases, liquids, or solids) have relatively low toxicity and
are biodegradable. BTEX are group of four volatile organic compounds: benzene,
toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (mixture of ortho, para, and meta). BTEX have
been identified as toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic (Masih et al. 2016), and are
listed as Hazardous Air Pollutants in the US Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.
United States Environmental Protection Agency reported that the source for 47–75%
of BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene) detected in environment is
petroleum-based industries (Younis et al. 2020; Jafarinejad 2017a, b). Polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of organic compounds consisting of two
or more fused aromatic rings, and are referred to as persistent organic pollutants
(POPs) because of their chemical stability and biodegradation resistance (Borji et al.
2020). PAH contaminants pose a significant hazard to the environment and human
health because of their chemical stability and biodegradation resistance (USEPA
1984; Ma et al. 2010; Valavanidis et al. 2008).
Hydrocarbons have been widespread used in our day to day lives. They are the
main source of fuel for the industrial and manufacturing sector. Thus, we need
technologies for hydrocarbon pollution prevention which able to monitor and
treatment of hydrocarbon contaminants in the environment. In the past two decades,
9 Application of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Removal of Hydrocarbons
207