88. W. Woolley, A.I. Wadley, P. Field, Studies of the thermal decomposition of flexible
polyurethane foams in air. Fire Research Notes 951, 1972
89. C. Branca, C. Di Blasi, A. Casu, V. Morone, C. Costa, Reaction kinetics and morphological
changes of a rigid polyurethane foam during combustion. Thermochim. Acta 399, 127–137
(2003)
90. J. Hastie, Molecular basis of flame inhibition. J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. Phys. Chem. 77, 733–
754 (1973)
91. P. Bonczyk, Effect of ferrocene on soot in a prevaporized iso-octane/air diffusion flame.
Combust. Flame 87, 233–244 (1991)
92. D. Cotton, N. Friswell, D. Jenkins, The suppression of soot emission from flames by metal
additives. Combust. Flame 17, 87–98 (1971)
93. F. Gao, D. Price, G. Milnes, B. Eling, C. Lindsay, P. McGrail, Laser pyrolysis of polymers
and its relation to polymer fire behaviour. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 40, 217–231 (1997)
94. M. Thirumal, N.K. Singha, D. Khastgir, B. Manjunath, Y. Naik, Halogen-free
flame-retardant rigid polyurethane foams: effect of alumina trihydrate and triphenylphosphate on the properties of polyurethane foams. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 116, 2260–2268 (2010)
95. E.N. Peters, Flame‐retardant thermoplastics. I. Polyethylene–red phosphorus. J. Appl.
Polym. Sci. 24, 1457–1464 (1979)
96. R.P. Lattimer, W.J. Kroenke, The functional role of molybdenum trioxide as a smoke
retarder additive in rigid poly(vinyl chloride). J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 26, 1191–1210 (1981)
97. B.C. Levin, New research avenues in toxicology: 7-gas N-Gas Model, toxicant suppressants,
and genetic toxicology. Toxicology 115, 89–106 (1996)
98. B. Levin, M. Paabo, J. Gurman, H. Clark, M. Yoklavich, Further studies of the toxicological
effects of different time exposures to the individual and combined fire gases: carbon
monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, carbon dioxide, and reduced oxygen, in: Polyurethane ’88,
Proceedings of the 31st Society of Plastics Meeting, 1988, pp. 249–252
99. H. Doerge, M. Wismer, A new approach to the preparation of rigid urethane foams having
reduced flame spread and smoke levels. J. Cell. Plast. 8, 311–317 (1972)
100. H. Singh, A. Jain, Ignition, combustion, toxicity, and fire retardancy of polyurethane foams:
a comprehensive review. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 111, 1115–1143 (2009)
101. S. Duquesne, M. Le Bras, S. Bourbigot, R. Delobel, F. Poutch, G. Camino, B. Eling, C.
Lindsay, T. Roels, Analysis of fire gases released from polyurethane and fire-retarded
polyurethane coatings. J. Fire Sci. 18, 456–482 (2000)
102. S.D. Jiang, Z.M. Bai, G. Tang, Y. Hu, L. Song, Synthesis of ZnS decorated graphene sheets
for reducing fire hazards of epoxy composites. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 53, 6708–6717 (2014)
103. A. Szymczyk, E. Senderek, J. Nastalczyk, Z. Roslaniec, New multiblock poly(ether-ester)s
based on poly(trimethylene terephthalate) as rigid segments. Eur. Polym. J. 44, 436–443
(2008)
104. G.Z. Papageorgiou, A.A. Vassiliou, V.D. Karavelidis, A. Koumbis, N.D. Bikiaris, Novel
poly(propylene terephthalate-co-succinate) random copolymers: synthesis, solid structure,
and enzymatic degradation study. Macromolecules 41, 1675–1684 (2008)
105. T. Kashiwagi, J.R. Shields, R.H. Harris, R.D. Davis, Flame-retardant mechanism of silica:
Effects of resin molecular weight. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 87, 1541–1553 (2003)
106. R.W. Stackman, Phosphorus based additives for flame retardant polyester. 2. Polymeric
phosphorus esters. Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. 21, 332–336 (1982)
107. W. El Khatib, B. Youssef, C. Bunel, B. Mortaigne, Fireproofing of polyurethane elastomers
by reactive organophosphonates. Polym. Int. 52, 146–152 (2003)
108. X. Chen, Y. Hu, L. Song, Thermal behaviors of a novel UV cured flame retardant coatings
containing phosphorus, nitrogen and silicon. Polym. Eng. Sci. 48, 116–123 (2008)
109. M. Jimenez, S. Duquesne, S. Bourbigot, Intumescent fire protective coating: toward a better
understanding of their mechanism of action. Thermochim. Acta 449, 16–26 (2006)
110. G.C. Zhang, J.W. Gu, S.L. Dong, Q.Y. Zhang, J. Kong, Y.S. Tang, Y. Li, Preparation and
mechanism analysis of intumescent flame-retardant coatings. J. Mater. Eng. 1, 47–52 (2006)
66
5 Flame-Retardant Polyurethanes
polyurethane foams in air. Fire Research Notes 951, 1972
89. C. Branca, C. Di Blasi, A. Casu, V. Morone, C. Costa, Reaction kinetics and morphological
changes of a rigid polyurethane foam during combustion. Thermochim. Acta 399, 127–137
(2003)
90. J. Hastie, Molecular basis of flame inhibition. J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. Phys. Chem. 77, 733–
754 (1973)
91. P. Bonczyk, Effect of ferrocene on soot in a prevaporized iso-octane/air diffusion flame.
Combust. Flame 87, 233–244 (1991)
92. D. Cotton, N. Friswell, D. Jenkins, The suppression of soot emission from flames by metal
additives. Combust. Flame 17, 87–98 (1971)
93. F. Gao, D. Price, G. Milnes, B. Eling, C. Lindsay, P. McGrail, Laser pyrolysis of polymers
and its relation to polymer fire behaviour. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 40, 217–231 (1997)
94. M. Thirumal, N.K. Singha, D. Khastgir, B. Manjunath, Y. Naik, Halogen-free
flame-retardant rigid polyurethane foams: effect of alumina trihydrate and triphenylphosphate on the properties of polyurethane foams. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 116, 2260–2268 (2010)
95. E.N. Peters, Flame‐retardant thermoplastics. I. Polyethylene–red phosphorus. J. Appl.
Polym. Sci. 24, 1457–1464 (1979)
96. R.P. Lattimer, W.J. Kroenke, The functional role of molybdenum trioxide as a smoke
retarder additive in rigid poly(vinyl chloride). J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 26, 1191–1210 (1981)
97. B.C. Levin, New research avenues in toxicology: 7-gas N-Gas Model, toxicant suppressants,
and genetic toxicology. Toxicology 115, 89–106 (1996)
98. B. Levin, M. Paabo, J. Gurman, H. Clark, M. Yoklavich, Further studies of the toxicological
effects of different time exposures to the individual and combined fire gases: carbon
monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, carbon dioxide, and reduced oxygen, in: Polyurethane ’88,
Proceedings of the 31st Society of Plastics Meeting, 1988, pp. 249–252
99. H. Doerge, M. Wismer, A new approach to the preparation of rigid urethane foams having
reduced flame spread and smoke levels. J. Cell. Plast. 8, 311–317 (1972)
100. H. Singh, A. Jain, Ignition, combustion, toxicity, and fire retardancy of polyurethane foams:
a comprehensive review. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 111, 1115–1143 (2009)
101. S. Duquesne, M. Le Bras, S. Bourbigot, R. Delobel, F. Poutch, G. Camino, B. Eling, C.
Lindsay, T. Roels, Analysis of fire gases released from polyurethane and fire-retarded
polyurethane coatings. J. Fire Sci. 18, 456–482 (2000)
102. S.D. Jiang, Z.M. Bai, G. Tang, Y. Hu, L. Song, Synthesis of ZnS decorated graphene sheets
for reducing fire hazards of epoxy composites. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 53, 6708–6717 (2014)
103. A. Szymczyk, E. Senderek, J. Nastalczyk, Z. Roslaniec, New multiblock poly(ether-ester)s
based on poly(trimethylene terephthalate) as rigid segments. Eur. Polym. J. 44, 436–443
(2008)
104. G.Z. Papageorgiou, A.A. Vassiliou, V.D. Karavelidis, A. Koumbis, N.D. Bikiaris, Novel
poly(propylene terephthalate-co-succinate) random copolymers: synthesis, solid structure,
and enzymatic degradation study. Macromolecules 41, 1675–1684 (2008)
105. T. Kashiwagi, J.R. Shields, R.H. Harris, R.D. Davis, Flame-retardant mechanism of silica:
Effects of resin molecular weight. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 87, 1541–1553 (2003)
106. R.W. Stackman, Phosphorus based additives for flame retardant polyester. 2. Polymeric
phosphorus esters. Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. 21, 332–336 (1982)
107. W. El Khatib, B. Youssef, C. Bunel, B. Mortaigne, Fireproofing of polyurethane elastomers
by reactive organophosphonates. Polym. Int. 52, 146–152 (2003)
108. X. Chen, Y. Hu, L. Song, Thermal behaviors of a novel UV cured flame retardant coatings
containing phosphorus, nitrogen and silicon. Polym. Eng. Sci. 48, 116–123 (2008)
109. M. Jimenez, S. Duquesne, S. Bourbigot, Intumescent fire protective coating: toward a better
understanding of their mechanism of action. Thermochim. Acta 449, 16–26 (2006)
110. G.C. Zhang, J.W. Gu, S.L. Dong, Q.Y. Zhang, J. Kong, Y.S. Tang, Y. Li, Preparation and
mechanism analysis of intumescent flame-retardant coatings. J. Mater. Eng. 1, 47–52 (2006)
66
5 Flame-Retardant Polyurethanes