12
devising new deliveries by which BAs can be weaponized [5–7]. It has become
apparent that BAs weapons pose a real and potentially immediate threat as they are
relatively cheap to manufacture and employ, and they have a tremendous potential
impact as terror weapons [2]. These properties make biological weapons attractive
to terrorist organizations.
2.1.1 Classification of Biological Agents
Recently, biological Agents were categorized according to the Code of Practice,
Safety, Health and Welfare at Work Regulations, 2013 [8]. This classification system
is founded on whether: the biological agent is pathogenic to humans, represents a
hazard to soldiers, is transmissible to the nearby community, and if there is a
possible effective treatment available [8–11]. Consequently, BAs are classified into
four risk groups (RG), namely, RG1, RG2, RG3, and RG4, as follows:
RG1 includes BAs not linked with diseases in healthy adult humans. Examples of RG1
agents include Bacillus subtilis or Bacillus licheniformis, Escherichia coli-K12, and adenoassociated virus (AAV) types 1 through 4 [9, 10].
RG2 includes BAs connected with human diseases, which is rarely serious and for which
preventive or therapeutic interventions are often available. Examples of RG2 agents include
Salmonella sp., Chlamydia psittaci, measles virus, and hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E viruses
[9, 10].
RG3 contains BAs associated with serious or lethal human diseases for which preventive or
therapeutic solutions may be available (high individual risk but low community risk).
Examples of RG3 agents include Brucella, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Coccidioides
immitis, yellow fever virus, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) types 1 and 2 [9, 10].
RG4 includes BAs that are expected to cause dangerous human disease for which preventive or therapeutic solutions are not usually available (high individual risk and high community risk). RG4 agents only include viruses. Examples of RG4 agents consist of
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Ebola virus, and herpesvirus simiae (B-virus).
Under the classification system, these Risk Group 1 agents are the least hazardous, whilst
Group 4 is the most hazardous [9, 10].
2.1.2 Analytical Measurement of Biological Agents
Field BAs and urban public health surveillance systems usually provide a rapid
determination of the presence of BAs in the atmosphere and may, in time, indicate
when and where the biological agent was released [11–15]. Once, the point source
is revealed, and the BA identified, rapid clean-up effort could be initiated, after the
release of the compound. Moreover, it is essential to monitor the presence of BAs in
J. H. Banoub and A. Mikhael
devising new deliveries by which BAs can be weaponized [5–7]. It has become
apparent that BAs weapons pose a real and potentially immediate threat as they are
relatively cheap to manufacture and employ, and they have a tremendous potential
impact as terror weapons [2]. These properties make biological weapons attractive
to terrorist organizations.
2.1.1 Classification of Biological Agents
Recently, biological Agents were categorized according to the Code of Practice,
Safety, Health and Welfare at Work Regulations, 2013 [8]. This classification system
is founded on whether: the biological agent is pathogenic to humans, represents a
hazard to soldiers, is transmissible to the nearby community, and if there is a
possible effective treatment available [8–11]. Consequently, BAs are classified into
four risk groups (RG), namely, RG1, RG2, RG3, and RG4, as follows:
RG1 includes BAs not linked with diseases in healthy adult humans. Examples of RG1
agents include Bacillus subtilis or Bacillus licheniformis, Escherichia coli-K12, and adenoassociated virus (AAV) types 1 through 4 [9, 10].
RG2 includes BAs connected with human diseases, which is rarely serious and for which
preventive or therapeutic interventions are often available. Examples of RG2 agents include
Salmonella sp., Chlamydia psittaci, measles virus, and hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E viruses
[9, 10].
RG3 contains BAs associated with serious or lethal human diseases for which preventive or
therapeutic solutions may be available (high individual risk but low community risk).
Examples of RG3 agents include Brucella, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Coccidioides
immitis, yellow fever virus, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) types 1 and 2 [9, 10].
RG4 includes BAs that are expected to cause dangerous human disease for which preventive or therapeutic solutions are not usually available (high individual risk and high community risk). RG4 agents only include viruses. Examples of RG4 agents consist of
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Ebola virus, and herpesvirus simiae (B-virus).
Under the classification system, these Risk Group 1 agents are the least hazardous, whilst
Group 4 is the most hazardous [9, 10].
2.1.2 Analytical Measurement of Biological Agents
Field BAs and urban public health surveillance systems usually provide a rapid
determination of the presence of BAs in the atmosphere and may, in time, indicate
when and where the biological agent was released [11–15]. Once, the point source
is revealed, and the BA identified, rapid clean-up effort could be initiated, after the
release of the compound. Moreover, it is essential to monitor the presence of BAs in
J. H. Banoub and A. Mikhael