abnormal sized coffee cherry production. The scale insects, bugs (Pentatomid and
Mirid), and thrips are more dangerous at small green berry stage as these insects
assault on green berries causing berry destruction and drop-off [248]. Ants are nectar
thieves and flower predators, lessen the pollen viability via antibiotic secretions, and
are also less efficient pollinators as compared to winged insects, but ants may
amplify the pollination by attacking the pollinators which can increase their movement and hence pollen transfer rate among flowers may rise [252]. Sucking bugs
(Antestiopsis spp., Lamprocapsidea cofeuei, and Habrochila spp.) are considered
more serious in lowering the physical quality of bean in Africa. These bugs, as name
indicated, also suck from growing tips and flower buds leaving blackened flower
buds or drop the immature berries and rotten the beans. Sucking bugs not only
destructively target the physical quality of beans but also inject the toxic saliva and
fungal spores while sucking sap and making the berries shrink [245]. This fungus
usually transmitted from infected plant to healthy plant and also caused the taste
defect in coffee after processing [253]. Termites (i.e., Nasutitermes Termitidae and
Macroterrne Termitidae) are beneficial in softening the soil and fastening the water
infiltration, but as termites feed on dead bark tissues so termites can lead to death of
weak coffee tress [248]. Coffee thrips (i.e., Diarthrothrips coffeae) are no longer
considered as serious pests; however, irrespective of minor pests, their rare epidemic
eruption is also reported in literature [248]. Beetles or weevils (i.e., Systates spp.),
Coffee Leaf Skeletonizer (Leucoplema dohertyi), and caterpillars (i.e., Parasa
vivida) eat on green leaves (some leaving only veins and compartmented the leaves),
while chafers (i.e., Pseudotrochalus spp.) strike on and eat roots and other vegetative
parts of tree. Eating of leaves and roots can seriously affect the fruit filling,
development, size, and biochemical composition of beans [254]. Larvae of coffee
leaf miners (i.e., Leucoptera caffeina) produced blotch like brown lines on upper and
lower side of leaves causing the premature death of leaves while carrying the full
fruit load and ultimately death of stem tip called overbearing die back [251, 255].
This, consequently, also destructively affects the physical and cup quality of coffee.
When the berries are fully ripened, matured, and stable, no insect can attack them
except coffee fruit flies (Trirhithrum coffeae Bezzi) which lay their eggs in the berry
pulp and consumption of the berry pulp and nutritional material affect the beans’
nutritional composition deteriorating the cup quality during brewing [256]. After
sucking bugs, borers are considered more fatal pests of coffee. These insects are
named after their target sight of boring or appearance, i.e., twig borers (Xylosandrus
compactus) bore in twigs, stem borers (Ancylonotus tribulus) bore in stem, berry
borers (Hypothenemus hampei) bore in berries, white borer (Monochamus
leuconotus), black head borer (Apate monachus), etc. [257, 258]. Borers generally
tunnel the targeting site, make wide and long galleries, and laid the eggs on bark or
fruiting branches. The larvae can reach the heartwood and root that leads to death of
whole or affected part. The berries affected by berry borer are usually light in weight
and undersized and not only fetch the fewer prices but also contaminate the whole
harvesting lots [251, 258–260]. The epidemic form of Coffee Berry Moth (i.e.,
Prophantis smaragdina) was observed in intensive coffee production systems
where its larvae feed on flowers and hole the berries. The larvae move from one
686
A. Hameed et al.
Mirid), and thrips are more dangerous at small green berry stage as these insects
assault on green berries causing berry destruction and drop-off [248]. Ants are nectar
thieves and flower predators, lessen the pollen viability via antibiotic secretions, and
are also less efficient pollinators as compared to winged insects, but ants may
amplify the pollination by attacking the pollinators which can increase their movement and hence pollen transfer rate among flowers may rise [252]. Sucking bugs
(Antestiopsis spp., Lamprocapsidea cofeuei, and Habrochila spp.) are considered
more serious in lowering the physical quality of bean in Africa. These bugs, as name
indicated, also suck from growing tips and flower buds leaving blackened flower
buds or drop the immature berries and rotten the beans. Sucking bugs not only
destructively target the physical quality of beans but also inject the toxic saliva and
fungal spores while sucking sap and making the berries shrink [245]. This fungus
usually transmitted from infected plant to healthy plant and also caused the taste
defect in coffee after processing [253]. Termites (i.e., Nasutitermes Termitidae and
Macroterrne Termitidae) are beneficial in softening the soil and fastening the water
infiltration, but as termites feed on dead bark tissues so termites can lead to death of
weak coffee tress [248]. Coffee thrips (i.e., Diarthrothrips coffeae) are no longer
considered as serious pests; however, irrespective of minor pests, their rare epidemic
eruption is also reported in literature [248]. Beetles or weevils (i.e., Systates spp.),
Coffee Leaf Skeletonizer (Leucoplema dohertyi), and caterpillars (i.e., Parasa
vivida) eat on green leaves (some leaving only veins and compartmented the leaves),
while chafers (i.e., Pseudotrochalus spp.) strike on and eat roots and other vegetative
parts of tree. Eating of leaves and roots can seriously affect the fruit filling,
development, size, and biochemical composition of beans [254]. Larvae of coffee
leaf miners (i.e., Leucoptera caffeina) produced blotch like brown lines on upper and
lower side of leaves causing the premature death of leaves while carrying the full
fruit load and ultimately death of stem tip called overbearing die back [251, 255].
This, consequently, also destructively affects the physical and cup quality of coffee.
When the berries are fully ripened, matured, and stable, no insect can attack them
except coffee fruit flies (Trirhithrum coffeae Bezzi) which lay their eggs in the berry
pulp and consumption of the berry pulp and nutritional material affect the beans’
nutritional composition deteriorating the cup quality during brewing [256]. After
sucking bugs, borers are considered more fatal pests of coffee. These insects are
named after their target sight of boring or appearance, i.e., twig borers (Xylosandrus
compactus) bore in twigs, stem borers (Ancylonotus tribulus) bore in stem, berry
borers (Hypothenemus hampei) bore in berries, white borer (Monochamus
leuconotus), black head borer (Apate monachus), etc. [257, 258]. Borers generally
tunnel the targeting site, make wide and long galleries, and laid the eggs on bark or
fruiting branches. The larvae can reach the heartwood and root that leads to death of
whole or affected part. The berries affected by berry borer are usually light in weight
and undersized and not only fetch the fewer prices but also contaminate the whole
harvesting lots [251, 258–260]. The epidemic form of Coffee Berry Moth (i.e.,
Prophantis smaragdina) was observed in intensive coffee production systems
where its larvae feed on flowers and hole the berries. The larvae move from one
686
A. Hameed et al.