(Erythricium salmonicolor), and infection diseases [242–244]. Most of coffee IPDs
epidemics are site specific and erratic climatic conditions favor the eruption of IPDs
to some extent. Briefly structural factors such as susceptibility, aging, and other oneoff factors like erratic meteorological variances and socioeconomic conditions
related to farm managements are considered the important drivers for the coffee
IPDs epidemics [242]. Most of coffee IPDs deteriorate the quality and yield of coffee
plant by attacking or affecting the flowers, fruits, foliage, transport system, or organ
system of plant. Each part of plant has its own significance in healthy and quality
berries and beans production. Flower IPDs (e.g., antestia bug) damage the flower and
flower buds turning them into brown or black entity which finally fall off [245].
From small green berry stage to mummified berries, various berry IPDs (Antestia
bug and coffee berry borer) strike causing a 9–60% drop in yield and darkening of
beans [246]. Berry pulp is an excellent source of sugars for most of berry pests and
fungi which can consume that sugar rich pulp and produce alcohols and acid that not
only can percolate into the coffee beans but also affect macro- and micronutrients
transportation between pulp and beans and hence alter biochemical composition of
beans [247]. Leaves or foliage are the food or energy hub of whole plant from where
not only each component of coffee beans but also “food” for whole plant is being
transported. Any IPDs targeting foliage will, definitely, affect the developing and
maturing berries and beans in terms of their size, appearance, weight, color, and
compositional contents. It is also generally assumed that 1% damage of foliage can
result in 1% reduction in yield. Organ or transport system of plant also has primary
importance as roots absorb the required nutrients from soil and stem and branches
are the prime in transporting the nutrients and food. Any outbreak of root or stem
IPDs will distort the supply of nutrients and food towards leaves and berries,
respectively, and consequently compromising the yield and quality of fruit. Here
now we are describing the IPDs impacting on these three plant systems. Ants, mites,
grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, termites, aphids, scale insects, mealy bugs (root,
sucking, leave, capsid bugs), scale insects (star or fringed), thrips, beetles, weevils,
borers (leaf, twig, stem, berry borers), fruit flies, chafers, leaf miners, moths, leaf
eating caterpillars, Skeletonizer, loopers, etc., are the major described IPDs of coffee
in literature [248]. Grasshoppers (Zonocerus variegatus and Zonocerus variegatus),
locusts (Phymateus viridipes), aphids (Toxoptera aurantii), and crickets (Gryllus
bimaculatus) are not considered as “pests” of coffee now, but their large populations
can damage the branches of plant bearing flowers or fruits [60, 249, 250]. The
honeydew from aphids is used as a food source for other pests, which can cause
fungal epidemics. The scale or wingless insects (i.e., coccus spp. and Asterolecanium
coffeae), ants (Atopomyrmex nzocquerysi), and mealy bugs (i.e., Planococcus
kenyae) suck the sap from the plant tissues and thus disturb the supply of sugars
and nutrients to vegetative and reproductive parts of plants [251] due to which plant
growth may be affected and coffee beans may be undersized. The honeydew of scale
mealy bug insects is also used by sooty fungus (Leaf Rust Hemileia and
Diacanthodes sp.) which lowers the whole plant photosynthesis rate by making a
dusty layer at surface of leaves. This reduction in photosynthesis rate may lead to
lower supply of carbohydrates and nutrients to coffee cherries and consequently
27 “Coffee Bean-Related” Agroecological Factors Affecting the Coffee
685
epidemics are site specific and erratic climatic conditions favor the eruption of IPDs
to some extent. Briefly structural factors such as susceptibility, aging, and other oneoff factors like erratic meteorological variances and socioeconomic conditions
related to farm managements are considered the important drivers for the coffee
IPDs epidemics [242]. Most of coffee IPDs deteriorate the quality and yield of coffee
plant by attacking or affecting the flowers, fruits, foliage, transport system, or organ
system of plant. Each part of plant has its own significance in healthy and quality
berries and beans production. Flower IPDs (e.g., antestia bug) damage the flower and
flower buds turning them into brown or black entity which finally fall off [245].
From small green berry stage to mummified berries, various berry IPDs (Antestia
bug and coffee berry borer) strike causing a 9–60% drop in yield and darkening of
beans [246]. Berry pulp is an excellent source of sugars for most of berry pests and
fungi which can consume that sugar rich pulp and produce alcohols and acid that not
only can percolate into the coffee beans but also affect macro- and micronutrients
transportation between pulp and beans and hence alter biochemical composition of
beans [247]. Leaves or foliage are the food or energy hub of whole plant from where
not only each component of coffee beans but also “food” for whole plant is being
transported. Any IPDs targeting foliage will, definitely, affect the developing and
maturing berries and beans in terms of their size, appearance, weight, color, and
compositional contents. It is also generally assumed that 1% damage of foliage can
result in 1% reduction in yield. Organ or transport system of plant also has primary
importance as roots absorb the required nutrients from soil and stem and branches
are the prime in transporting the nutrients and food. Any outbreak of root or stem
IPDs will distort the supply of nutrients and food towards leaves and berries,
respectively, and consequently compromising the yield and quality of fruit. Here
now we are describing the IPDs impacting on these three plant systems. Ants, mites,
grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, termites, aphids, scale insects, mealy bugs (root,
sucking, leave, capsid bugs), scale insects (star or fringed), thrips, beetles, weevils,
borers (leaf, twig, stem, berry borers), fruit flies, chafers, leaf miners, moths, leaf
eating caterpillars, Skeletonizer, loopers, etc., are the major described IPDs of coffee
in literature [248]. Grasshoppers (Zonocerus variegatus and Zonocerus variegatus),
locusts (Phymateus viridipes), aphids (Toxoptera aurantii), and crickets (Gryllus
bimaculatus) are not considered as “pests” of coffee now, but their large populations
can damage the branches of plant bearing flowers or fruits [60, 249, 250]. The
honeydew from aphids is used as a food source for other pests, which can cause
fungal epidemics. The scale or wingless insects (i.e., coccus spp. and Asterolecanium
coffeae), ants (Atopomyrmex nzocquerysi), and mealy bugs (i.e., Planococcus
kenyae) suck the sap from the plant tissues and thus disturb the supply of sugars
and nutrients to vegetative and reproductive parts of plants [251] due to which plant
growth may be affected and coffee beans may be undersized. The honeydew of scale
mealy bug insects is also used by sooty fungus (Leaf Rust Hemileia and
Diacanthodes sp.) which lowers the whole plant photosynthesis rate by making a
dusty layer at surface of leaves. This reduction in photosynthesis rate may lead to
lower supply of carbohydrates and nutrients to coffee cherries and consequently
27 “Coffee Bean-Related” Agroecological Factors Affecting the Coffee
685