in vivo experimentation. Indeed, the inherent nonlinearity of biological systems
imply in sensitivity to the initial conditions, even if their dynamics were
completely known. Furthermore, they are probably algorithmically incompressible, and their simulation through any algorithm simpler than themselves can only
be approximated.
Today, the quantitative success of multiscale modeling is limited, whereas the
unresolved scientific problems are widespread. However, the increasing computer
power, the development of inherently multiscale modeling and theoretical ideas,
and the growing interest from physicists, mathematicians, and biologists on this type
of multidisciplinary approach will certainly accelerate the progress and the broad
applicability of the multiscale program in biological sciences. Hence, we can
confidently predict a major role for multiscale models in future ecological and
evolutionary research, transforming biology in a highly computer-intensive science.
The hard calculations and extensive simulations necessary for the solution of
multiscale mathematical models can be so vital to the rise of quantitative and
predictive systems biology as biologists never dreamed before. As Cohen said:
“Mathematics is biology’s next microscope, only better” [48].
References
1. Cordero OX, Wildschutte H, Kirkup B, Proeh LS, Ngo L, Hussain F, Le Roux F, Mincer T,
Polz MF (2012) Ecological populations of bacteria act as socially cohesive units of antibiotic
production and resistance. Science 337:1228–1231
2. Starmer WT, Ganter PF, Aberdeen V, Lachance M-A, Phaff HJ (1987) The ecological role of
killer yeasts in natural communities of yeasts. Can J Microbiol 33:783–796
3. Bérdy J (2005) Bioactive microbial metabolites. J Antibiot 58:126
4. Bais HP, Park SW, Weir TL, Callaway RM, Vivanco JM (2004) How plants communicate using
the underground information superhighway. Trends Plant Sci 9:26–32
5. Gatenby RA, Gawlinski ET, Gmitro AF, Kaylor B, Gillies RJ (2006) Acid-meditated tumour
invasion: a multidisciplinary study. Cancer Res 66:5216–5223
6. Braganhol E, Wink MR, Lenz G, Battastini AMO (2013) Purinergic signaling in glioma
progression. In: Baranska J (ed) Glioma signaling, Advances in experimental medicine and
biology, vol 986. Springer, Dordrecht
7. Bais HP, Vepachedu R, Gilroy S et al (2003) Allelopathy and exotic plant invasion: from
molecules and genes to species interactions. Science 301:1377–1380
8. Chou C (1999) Roles of allelopathy in plant biodiversity and sustainable agriculture. Crit Rev
Plant Sci 18:609–636
9. Dean WRJ (1998) Space invaders: modeling the distribution, impacts and control of alien
organisms. Trends Ecol Evol 13:256–258
10. Drake JA, Mooney HA, di Castri F et al (eds) (1989) Biological invasions: a global perspective.
Wiley, Chichester
11. Shigesada N, Kawasaki K (1997) Biological invasions: theory and practice. Oxford University
Press, Oxford
12. Round JL, Mazmanian SK (2009) The gut microbiota shapes intestinal immune responses
during health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 9:313–323
13. Richards MJ, Edwards JR, Culver DH, Gaynes RP (2000) Nosocomial infections in combined
medical-surgical intensive care units in the United States. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol
21:510–515
502
S. A. Carvalho and M. L. Martins
imply in sensitivity to the initial conditions, even if their dynamics were
completely known. Furthermore, they are probably algorithmically incompressible, and their simulation through any algorithm simpler than themselves can only
be approximated.
Today, the quantitative success of multiscale modeling is limited, whereas the
unresolved scientific problems are widespread. However, the increasing computer
power, the development of inherently multiscale modeling and theoretical ideas,
and the growing interest from physicists, mathematicians, and biologists on this type
of multidisciplinary approach will certainly accelerate the progress and the broad
applicability of the multiscale program in biological sciences. Hence, we can
confidently predict a major role for multiscale models in future ecological and
evolutionary research, transforming biology in a highly computer-intensive science.
The hard calculations and extensive simulations necessary for the solution of
multiscale mathematical models can be so vital to the rise of quantitative and
predictive systems biology as biologists never dreamed before. As Cohen said:
“Mathematics is biology’s next microscope, only better” [48].
References
1. Cordero OX, Wildschutte H, Kirkup B, Proeh LS, Ngo L, Hussain F, Le Roux F, Mincer T,
Polz MF (2012) Ecological populations of bacteria act as socially cohesive units of antibiotic
production and resistance. Science 337:1228–1231
2. Starmer WT, Ganter PF, Aberdeen V, Lachance M-A, Phaff HJ (1987) The ecological role of
killer yeasts in natural communities of yeasts. Can J Microbiol 33:783–796
3. Bérdy J (2005) Bioactive microbial metabolites. J Antibiot 58:126
4. Bais HP, Park SW, Weir TL, Callaway RM, Vivanco JM (2004) How plants communicate using
the underground information superhighway. Trends Plant Sci 9:26–32
5. Gatenby RA, Gawlinski ET, Gmitro AF, Kaylor B, Gillies RJ (2006) Acid-meditated tumour
invasion: a multidisciplinary study. Cancer Res 66:5216–5223
6. Braganhol E, Wink MR, Lenz G, Battastini AMO (2013) Purinergic signaling in glioma
progression. In: Baranska J (ed) Glioma signaling, Advances in experimental medicine and
biology, vol 986. Springer, Dordrecht
7. Bais HP, Vepachedu R, Gilroy S et al (2003) Allelopathy and exotic plant invasion: from
molecules and genes to species interactions. Science 301:1377–1380
8. Chou C (1999) Roles of allelopathy in plant biodiversity and sustainable agriculture. Crit Rev
Plant Sci 18:609–636
9. Dean WRJ (1998) Space invaders: modeling the distribution, impacts and control of alien
organisms. Trends Ecol Evol 13:256–258
10. Drake JA, Mooney HA, di Castri F et al (eds) (1989) Biological invasions: a global perspective.
Wiley, Chichester
11. Shigesada N, Kawasaki K (1997) Biological invasions: theory and practice. Oxford University
Press, Oxford
12. Round JL, Mazmanian SK (2009) The gut microbiota shapes intestinal immune responses
during health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 9:313–323
13. Richards MJ, Edwards JR, Culver DH, Gaynes RP (2000) Nosocomial infections in combined
medical-surgical intensive care units in the United States. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol
21:510–515
502
S. A. Carvalho and M. L. Martins