and biological properties together to the tolerance of these organisms to pharmaceuticals makes these bioremediation strategies viable in soils receiving pharmaceuticalcontaminated amendments and water. Additionally, some studies have evidenced
that earthworms (Eisenia spp.) accumulate pharmaceuticals in their tissues, thus
being an advantageous biological process in the vermicomposting of biosolids and
manure.
Keywords Biochar, Bioremediation, Earthworms, Toxicity, Vermicomposting
1 Introduction
According to the US Food and Drug Administration [1], the term active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) refers to “any substance or mixture of substances intended
to be used in the manufacture of a drug (medicinal) product and that, when used in
the production of a drug, becomes an active ingredient of the drug product. Such
substances are intended to furnish pharmacological activity or other direct effect in
the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease or to affect the
structure and function of the body”. Many APIs and their metabolites are currently
detected in treated (or reclaimed) wastewater, biosolids (sediments obtained from
wastewater treatment plants) and animal manure. In this chapter, we will use the term
API to refer to both human and veterinary pharmaceuticals.
The incomplete removal of APIs during wastewater treatment and the high use of
veterinary pharmaceuticals in concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are
the main reasons for detecting APIs in treated wastewater, biosolids and manure
[2, 3]. In addition, pharmaceuticals’ consumption is significantly high in densely
populated areas, particularly in Asian countries, thus leading to discharge
API-contaminated wastewater [4]. Likewise, crop irrigation with treated wastewater
and the application of biosolids and manure as soil amendments are common
agricultural practices in arid and semiarid areas, where, in addition to water scarcity,
soils are characterised by a low organic carbon content [5, 6]. Therefore, these
agroecosystems have a high risk of contamination by APIs.
Irrigation of agricultural soils with treated wastewater is, therefore, a significant
route of continual input of APIs. Indeed, some of them are named “pseudo-persistent” pollutants because of concentrations in soil keep constant via irrigation [7],
despite displaying short half-life times [8]. Fertilisation with biosolids/manure is
another important source of API contamination. Although APIs are generally
detected in treated water [8–10], some studies have reported the occurrence of
these pollutants in biosolids [11, 12] and manure [13]. Moreover, the application
of biosolids to soil has been shown that increases the persistence of certain APIs
(triclosan and triclocarban) probably because of organic matter of biosolids that
decreases the API bioavailability for microbial degradation [14, 15]. Accordingly,
340
J. C. Sanchez-Hernandez
that earthworms (Eisenia spp.) accumulate pharmaceuticals in their tissues, thus
being an advantageous biological process in the vermicomposting of biosolids and
manure.
Keywords Biochar, Bioremediation, Earthworms, Toxicity, Vermicomposting
1 Introduction
According to the US Food and Drug Administration [1], the term active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) refers to “any substance or mixture of substances intended
to be used in the manufacture of a drug (medicinal) product and that, when used in
the production of a drug, becomes an active ingredient of the drug product. Such
substances are intended to furnish pharmacological activity or other direct effect in
the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease or to affect the
structure and function of the body”. Many APIs and their metabolites are currently
detected in treated (or reclaimed) wastewater, biosolids (sediments obtained from
wastewater treatment plants) and animal manure. In this chapter, we will use the term
API to refer to both human and veterinary pharmaceuticals.
The incomplete removal of APIs during wastewater treatment and the high use of
veterinary pharmaceuticals in concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are
the main reasons for detecting APIs in treated wastewater, biosolids and manure
[2, 3]. In addition, pharmaceuticals’ consumption is significantly high in densely
populated areas, particularly in Asian countries, thus leading to discharge
API-contaminated wastewater [4]. Likewise, crop irrigation with treated wastewater
and the application of biosolids and manure as soil amendments are common
agricultural practices in arid and semiarid areas, where, in addition to water scarcity,
soils are characterised by a low organic carbon content [5, 6]. Therefore, these
agroecosystems have a high risk of contamination by APIs.
Irrigation of agricultural soils with treated wastewater is, therefore, a significant
route of continual input of APIs. Indeed, some of them are named “pseudo-persistent” pollutants because of concentrations in soil keep constant via irrigation [7],
despite displaying short half-life times [8]. Fertilisation with biosolids/manure is
another important source of API contamination. Although APIs are generally
detected in treated water [8–10], some studies have reported the occurrence of
these pollutants in biosolids [11, 12] and manure [13]. Moreover, the application
of biosolids to soil has been shown that increases the persistence of certain APIs
(triclosan and triclocarban) probably because of organic matter of biosolids that
decreases the API bioavailability for microbial degradation [14, 15]. Accordingly,
340
J. C. Sanchez-Hernandez