actual wastewater or biosolid amendments. Those that have been conducted are
largely from HICs even though the use of these wastewater products is used
extensively in LMICs.
Significant knowledge gaps relating to the exposure and risks of pharmaceuticals
to crops, terrestrial organisms and humans and livestock consuming these crops in
LMICs clearly exist. These knowledge gaps include the classes and concentrations
of pharmaceuticals in wastewater (either directly or indirectly) that are used to
irrigate crops, the sources of wastewater used for irrigation (to inform mitigation
strategies), the crops irrigated by pharmaceutical-contaminated wastewater
(to determine exposure pathways and risks to crops and consumers of crops) and
the stability of pharmaceuticals or uptake of pharmaceuticals in crops under different
agricultural scenarios and climatic conditions that occur in LMICs. Figure 1 highlights this disparity showing the widespread geographical usage of wastewater for
irrigation and the relatively few studies that have been conducted and their focus in
HICs. This is not trivial, in that the majority of the global population lives in LMICs
and relies on agriculture that abstracts the majority of the world’s water, increasingly
through wastewater reuse, for production.
References
1. Dalkmann P, Broszat M, Siebe C, Willaschek E, Sakinc T, Huebner J, Amelung W,
Grohmann E, Siemens J (2012) Accumulation of pharmaceuticals, Enterococcus, and resistance genes in soils irrigated with wastewater for zero to 100 years in Central Mexico. PLoS
One 7(9):e45397
2. Kinney C, Furlong E, Werner S, Cahill J (2006) Presence and distribution of wastewaterderived pharmaceuticals in soil irrigated with reclaimed water. Environ Toxicol Chem
25:317–326
3. Kinney C, Furlong ET, Zaugg SD, Burkhardt MR, Werner S, Cahill J, Jorgensen GR (2006)
Survey of organic wastewater contaminants in biosolids destined for land application. Environ
Sci Technol 40(23):7207–7215
4. Prosser RS, Sibley PK (2015) Human health risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and personal
care products in plant tissue due to biosolids and manure amendments, and wastewater
irrigation. Environ Int 75:223–233
5. Carter LJ, Harris E, Williams M, Ryan JJ, Kookana RS, Boxall A (2014) Fate and uptake of
pharmaceuticals in soil-plant systems. J Agric Food Chem 62:816–825
6. Dordio A, Belo M, Martins Teixeira D, Palace Carvalho A, Dias C, Pico Y, Pinto A (2011)
Evaluation of carbamazepine uptake and metabolism by Typha spp., a plant with potential use
in phytotreatment. Bioresour Technol 102:7827–7834
7. Tejeda A, Torres-Bojorges AX, Zurita F (2017) Carbamazepine removal in three pilot-scale
hybrid wetlands planted with ornamental species. Ecol Eng 98:410–417
8. Winker M, Clemens J, Reich M, Gulyas H, Otterpohl R (2010) Ryegrass uptake of carbamazepine and ibuprofen applied by urine fertilization. Sci Total Environ 408:1902–1908
9. Zhang DQ, Hua T, Gersberg RM, Zhu J, Ng WJ, Tan SK (2013) Carbamazepine and
naproxen: fate in wetland mesocosms planted with Scirpus validus. Chemosphere 91(1):14–21
10. Goldstein M, Shenker M, Chefetz B (2014) Insights into the uptake processes of wastewaterborne pharmaceuticals by vegetables. Environ Sci Technol 48:5593–5600
212
L. J. Carter et al.
largely from HICs even though the use of these wastewater products is used
extensively in LMICs.
Significant knowledge gaps relating to the exposure and risks of pharmaceuticals
to crops, terrestrial organisms and humans and livestock consuming these crops in
LMICs clearly exist. These knowledge gaps include the classes and concentrations
of pharmaceuticals in wastewater (either directly or indirectly) that are used to
irrigate crops, the sources of wastewater used for irrigation (to inform mitigation
strategies), the crops irrigated by pharmaceutical-contaminated wastewater
(to determine exposure pathways and risks to crops and consumers of crops) and
the stability of pharmaceuticals or uptake of pharmaceuticals in crops under different
agricultural scenarios and climatic conditions that occur in LMICs. Figure 1 highlights this disparity showing the widespread geographical usage of wastewater for
irrigation and the relatively few studies that have been conducted and their focus in
HICs. This is not trivial, in that the majority of the global population lives in LMICs
and relies on agriculture that abstracts the majority of the world’s water, increasingly
through wastewater reuse, for production.
References
1. Dalkmann P, Broszat M, Siebe C, Willaschek E, Sakinc T, Huebner J, Amelung W,
Grohmann E, Siemens J (2012) Accumulation of pharmaceuticals, Enterococcus, and resistance genes in soils irrigated with wastewater for zero to 100 years in Central Mexico. PLoS
One 7(9):e45397
2. Kinney C, Furlong E, Werner S, Cahill J (2006) Presence and distribution of wastewaterderived pharmaceuticals in soil irrigated with reclaimed water. Environ Toxicol Chem
25:317–326
3. Kinney C, Furlong ET, Zaugg SD, Burkhardt MR, Werner S, Cahill J, Jorgensen GR (2006)
Survey of organic wastewater contaminants in biosolids destined for land application. Environ
Sci Technol 40(23):7207–7215
4. Prosser RS, Sibley PK (2015) Human health risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and personal
care products in plant tissue due to biosolids and manure amendments, and wastewater
irrigation. Environ Int 75:223–233
5. Carter LJ, Harris E, Williams M, Ryan JJ, Kookana RS, Boxall A (2014) Fate and uptake of
pharmaceuticals in soil-plant systems. J Agric Food Chem 62:816–825
6. Dordio A, Belo M, Martins Teixeira D, Palace Carvalho A, Dias C, Pico Y, Pinto A (2011)
Evaluation of carbamazepine uptake and metabolism by Typha spp., a plant with potential use
in phytotreatment. Bioresour Technol 102:7827–7834
7. Tejeda A, Torres-Bojorges AX, Zurita F (2017) Carbamazepine removal in three pilot-scale
hybrid wetlands planted with ornamental species. Ecol Eng 98:410–417
8. Winker M, Clemens J, Reich M, Gulyas H, Otterpohl R (2010) Ryegrass uptake of carbamazepine and ibuprofen applied by urine fertilization. Sci Total Environ 408:1902–1908
9. Zhang DQ, Hua T, Gersberg RM, Zhu J, Ng WJ, Tan SK (2013) Carbamazepine and
naproxen: fate in wetland mesocosms planted with Scirpus validus. Chemosphere 91(1):14–21
10. Goldstein M, Shenker M, Chefetz B (2014) Insights into the uptake processes of wastewaterborne pharmaceuticals by vegetables. Environ Sci Technol 48:5593–5600
212
L. J. Carter et al.