and formation of non-extractable residues, leaching, as well as biotransformation.
Consequently, an approach based on enantiomeric fractionation of chiral PhACs has
been suggested to discriminate between biotic and abiotic dissipation processes.
Keywords Abiotic dissipation, Ameliorating, Biosolid, Biotransformation,
Osmotic effects
1 Introduction
Water is fundamental for food production, and the increasing scarcity of this
essential natural resource has significant repercussions for the ability of humanity
to feed itself. The exponential world population growth and associated food consumption are exerting immense pressure on freshwater resources, resulting in
groundwater withdrawal rate to increase 1% per year since the 1980s. Water for
agriculture is at the core of any discussion of water and food security. Agriculture
accounts for approximately 70% of all water withdrawals globally. Competition for
water resources is expected to increase in the future due to food demand growth by at
least 50% by 2050. A greater application of nonconventional, alternative sources of
water, such as wastewater effluents, could mitigate this situation.
Wastewater is defined as a combination of one or more of black water (excreta,
urine, fecal sludge), gray water (kitchen and bathing wastewater), commercial and
industrial effluents (including hospitals), storm water and other urban runoff, as well
as agricultural, horticultural, and aquaculture effluents. In fact, according to the UN
(2003), about 200 million ha in more than 50 countries are irrigated with untreated
and/or treated wastewater. In Israel, treated wastewater (TWW) has been used for
crop irrigation since the early 1980s [1]. Countries such as Syria, Iraq, and Mexico
use more than 40% of their municipal wastewater for this purpose [2]. Likewise,
agricultural irrigation with TWW is a common practice in many other areas,
including Greece, Italy, Spain, France, and China [3–5].
Wastewater treatment produces also large amounts of biosolids, which are considered a good source of organic matter and beneficial plant nutrients, especially N
and P, therefore becoming good soil-ameliorating agents [6]. Approximately 4 billion tons of solid waste (municipal, industrial, and hazardous waste) is produced
globally on an annual basis. For example, the generation of municipal solid waste
(MSW) ranges from 1.6 to 2 billion tons [7]. The reuse of wastewater and biosolids
in agriculture brings many social and economic benefits and contributes to agricultural and environmental sustainability.
However, there are some negative effects related to the application of treated
wastewater on soil and crops, including (1) osmotic effects on the water potential of
the soil and plants [8]; (2) toxic effects due to high concentration of ions, e.g.,
sodium, chloride, and boron [9, 10]; and (3) alteration on the physical properties of
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M. Brienza et al.
Consequently, an approach based on enantiomeric fractionation of chiral PhACs has
been suggested to discriminate between biotic and abiotic dissipation processes.
Keywords Abiotic dissipation, Ameliorating, Biosolid, Biotransformation,
Osmotic effects
1 Introduction
Water is fundamental for food production, and the increasing scarcity of this
essential natural resource has significant repercussions for the ability of humanity
to feed itself. The exponential world population growth and associated food consumption are exerting immense pressure on freshwater resources, resulting in
groundwater withdrawal rate to increase 1% per year since the 1980s. Water for
agriculture is at the core of any discussion of water and food security. Agriculture
accounts for approximately 70% of all water withdrawals globally. Competition for
water resources is expected to increase in the future due to food demand growth by at
least 50% by 2050. A greater application of nonconventional, alternative sources of
water, such as wastewater effluents, could mitigate this situation.
Wastewater is defined as a combination of one or more of black water (excreta,
urine, fecal sludge), gray water (kitchen and bathing wastewater), commercial and
industrial effluents (including hospitals), storm water and other urban runoff, as well
as agricultural, horticultural, and aquaculture effluents. In fact, according to the UN
(2003), about 200 million ha in more than 50 countries are irrigated with untreated
and/or treated wastewater. In Israel, treated wastewater (TWW) has been used for
crop irrigation since the early 1980s [1]. Countries such as Syria, Iraq, and Mexico
use more than 40% of their municipal wastewater for this purpose [2]. Likewise,
agricultural irrigation with TWW is a common practice in many other areas,
including Greece, Italy, Spain, France, and China [3–5].
Wastewater treatment produces also large amounts of biosolids, which are considered a good source of organic matter and beneficial plant nutrients, especially N
and P, therefore becoming good soil-ameliorating agents [6]. Approximately 4 billion tons of solid waste (municipal, industrial, and hazardous waste) is produced
globally on an annual basis. For example, the generation of municipal solid waste
(MSW) ranges from 1.6 to 2 billion tons [7]. The reuse of wastewater and biosolids
in agriculture brings many social and economic benefits and contributes to agricultural and environmental sustainability.
However, there are some negative effects related to the application of treated
wastewater on soil and crops, including (1) osmotic effects on the water potential of
the soil and plants [8]; (2) toxic effects due to high concentration of ions, e.g.,
sodium, chloride, and boron [9, 10]; and (3) alteration on the physical properties of
144
M. Brienza et al.