by coastal scenery” (Ibid.). In sum, the study found that people’s behavioral intentions were highly influenced by the perception of oceans as a venue for providing
good scenery, opportunities for recreation, and venues for religious and traditional
events.
7.4 Discussion
Further discussion is needed of two important points. First, while eco-labeling (a tag
or label placed on a product that certifies that the product was produced in an
environmentally friendly way) has frequently been discussed in the previous literature as a tool for consumer participation in marine conservation, the findings by
Wakita et al. (2014) suggest that more effective tools can potentially be designed
based on consumers’ high valuation of cultural aspects of the ocean.
The definition of eco-labeling from the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) describes eco-labels as “voluntary labels which convey
information to consumers about the environmental implications associated with all
elements in the product’s ‘life’ i.e. its production, distribution, use and disposal”
(OECD 2002). FAO also describes eco-labeling as a market-based economic instrument that seeks to direct consumers’ purchasing behavior so that they take account of
economic and social objectives (fair trade; support for small-scale fishers; discouragement of child labor) in addition to environmental and ecological ones (FAO
2015). In fact, eco-labeled products can commonly be seen in US and European
markets. In Japan, some penetration of such products has also been reported, and
consumers show a positive preference for fishery products certified with eco-labels
(Oishi et al. 2010).
The underlying assumption for eco-labeling schemes is that people care about
oceans because it is where the food is produced. Wakita et al. (2014), however, have
found that respondents to the Japanese survey identified food as being among the
essential benefits provided by the ocean and that it has lower influence than cultural
benefits on behavioral intentions for marine conservation.
Consequently, it can be argued that more attention needs to be focused on the
cultural aspects of ocean ecosystem services if we want to obtain additional support
from citizens for urban–rural partnerships. Although we do not have a concrete idea
of how to activate people’s intentions to conserve or enhance cultural aspects of the
ocean, economic tools such as payment for ecosystem services that highlights
cultural aspects could be one option. Future research should be conducted on the
appropriate way to design such payments. Research is also needed on how to
understand consumer attitudes toward marine conservation in other countries (e.g.,
United States, China, or other Asian counties).
Second, it should be noted that the United Nations Ad Hoc Open-ended Informal
Working Group to study issues relating to the conservation and sustainable use of
marine biological diversity beyond areas of national jurisdiction, convened by the
US Secretary-General, provided recommendations on January 23, 2015, to the
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N. Yagi and K. Wakita
good scenery, opportunities for recreation, and venues for religious and traditional
events.
7.4 Discussion
Further discussion is needed of two important points. First, while eco-labeling (a tag
or label placed on a product that certifies that the product was produced in an
environmentally friendly way) has frequently been discussed in the previous literature as a tool for consumer participation in marine conservation, the findings by
Wakita et al. (2014) suggest that more effective tools can potentially be designed
based on consumers’ high valuation of cultural aspects of the ocean.
The definition of eco-labeling from the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) describes eco-labels as “voluntary labels which convey
information to consumers about the environmental implications associated with all
elements in the product’s ‘life’ i.e. its production, distribution, use and disposal”
(OECD 2002). FAO also describes eco-labeling as a market-based economic instrument that seeks to direct consumers’ purchasing behavior so that they take account of
economic and social objectives (fair trade; support for small-scale fishers; discouragement of child labor) in addition to environmental and ecological ones (FAO
2015). In fact, eco-labeled products can commonly be seen in US and European
markets. In Japan, some penetration of such products has also been reported, and
consumers show a positive preference for fishery products certified with eco-labels
(Oishi et al. 2010).
The underlying assumption for eco-labeling schemes is that people care about
oceans because it is where the food is produced. Wakita et al. (2014), however, have
found that respondents to the Japanese survey identified food as being among the
essential benefits provided by the ocean and that it has lower influence than cultural
benefits on behavioral intentions for marine conservation.
Consequently, it can be argued that more attention needs to be focused on the
cultural aspects of ocean ecosystem services if we want to obtain additional support
from citizens for urban–rural partnerships. Although we do not have a concrete idea
of how to activate people’s intentions to conserve or enhance cultural aspects of the
ocean, economic tools such as payment for ecosystem services that highlights
cultural aspects could be one option. Future research should be conducted on the
appropriate way to design such payments. Research is also needed on how to
understand consumer attitudes toward marine conservation in other countries (e.g.,
United States, China, or other Asian counties).
Second, it should be noted that the United Nations Ad Hoc Open-ended Informal
Working Group to study issues relating to the conservation and sustainable use of
marine biological diversity beyond areas of national jurisdiction, convened by the
US Secretary-General, provided recommendations on January 23, 2015, to the
132
N. Yagi and K. Wakita