serious problem and in countries where there is usually
warm climate condition, it could result in great reduction in
the amount of feed consumed (Lopez-Mosquera et al. 2008).
Feeding poultry manure to other kinds of birds has been
stated by few researchers. Wehunt et al. (1960) advocated
that hydrolyzed broiler dung could be utilized in the portions
of other chicks that seem to be lacking protein. Quisenbery
and Bradley (1968) discovered that the performance of
layers depending on meals rich in 10–20% of crude litter and
manure was mostly preferable when compared to the controls that were given portions with balanced protein and
energy. They concluded that feeding poultry waste to other
kind of poultry is practically possible. The cost of drying the
litter seems to be the major factor limiting economic
importance of this method. The cogent reason for this
method is the administration of calcium and phosphorous.
This method could be used where these nutrients (calcium
and phosphorous) are lacking or where they are too expensive. Places with warm climates could pose a serious threat
on the well-being of animals for proper digestion of feed; the
introduction of this method would be very difficult to practice. This system could be possible with birds within 8–
22 weeks, where their litter could be interchanged for
by-products from mining (Olivera-Castillo et al. 2011).
Advanced methods indicated that minimizing the rate of
inflow of constituents from poultry waste achieving maximum result is possible for the exponential growth in fishes
that are found in warm areas. Tilapia fishes are found to be
common in this area and have great capability of using up
poultry waste (Olivera-Castillo et al. 2011). Durham et al.
(1966) experimented by feeding catfish in densely overstocked fish ponds, and they replaced 50% of conventional
fish feed with feedlot manure. Ponds stocked with 60,000
fishes per ha gave 8.25 tonnes of fish biomass yearly. So,
they concluded that there was no variation within yields
from conventional fed ponds and those fed with litter portions. Findings also revealed that poultry cages could be
constructed or pig pens on a wooden stand above fish and,
where fish consumes the manure. This system is time and
energy saving because there is no need of washing or
cleaning the poultry and pig house often, owing to the fact
that the poultry of pigs are situated above the fish ponds.
There is usually great air transmission which has a great
cooling importance on layers, predominately sensitive to
stress caused by heat and in pig also. This system increases
the management of waste of livestock, improves the income
gotten from fish, and completely removes problem of environmental pollution (Vezey and Dobbing 1975). It was
discovered that a layer hen will generate enough energy to
produce up to 6–8 kg of fish biomass yearly. This is more
effective in areas where fish pond could be used for cropping
at the end of every second year; this is a common practice in
Asia. Engaging in this kind of practice provides great
production of fishes that are free from diseases and greater
yields in farm produce.
Poultry dung maybe singly used or mixed using other
food supplement, and was discovered to have great value
when administered to both cows and sea life such as fishes.
Ruminant animals have the ability to use up the uric present
in poultry compost (Smith and Fries 1973). Nevertheless,
presence of alien matters like glass and plastic may disrupt
the digesting potentials of the poultry dung and could
hamper the health of the animals; hence, there is a need for
renewal of this method before application as feed to animals.
There is also need to reduce the ash content of the feed. It is
therefore suggested that poultry manure with great ash
content greater than 28% should not be given to animals.
This ash content is said to be increased when there is
removal of inherent soil from the dung (Williams et al.
1999). Unprocessed poultry dung contains pathogenic
microbial population like Enterobacter spp., Clostridium,
and Salmonella. Therefore, appropriate handling helps to
decrease the quantity of the microbes or makes poultry litter
pathogen-free (Mccaskey and Anthony 1979; Kawata et al.
2006; Watcharasukarn et al. 2009). Some fungal species that
are known to inhabit the excreta of birds can produce toxins,
also known as mycotoxins. These pathogenic microbes
could therefore be eliminated by fermentation through
chemical method, ensilation, or application of heat
(McCaskey and Martin jr 1988; Cook et al. 2008).
There was no case of disease situation reported via
feeding poultry litters to animals while following the standard methods, only copper toxicity has been found to be
great issue, usually in sheep. When there is excess administration of copper in the diet of birds as growth improving
agent, the birds excrete the copper in greater concentration in
their litter owing to the fact that they hardly digest copper in
their system. And sheep are less tolerant to diets with
increased copper content when fed with the dung from
broiler hens (Fontenot et al. 1975; Sharma et al. 2005). The
use of poultry litter has been in use for over four decades
now in United States. The litter containing great percentage
of peptides of amino acids, fiber that are digestible, and
essential minerals were purposefully incorporated in the diet
of ruminant. Usually this poultry waste is mostly utilized by
farmers that can produce beef and milk as winter supplement
for weaned calves and cattle. Although the method of
re-feeding animals with poultry waste appears to be absurd,
this practice is very non-toxic and meets with the stipulations
of Association of American Feed Control Officials
(AAFCO) (FDA 2009). Thermally dehydrated poultry litter
should have a moisture content of not more than 15% and
lesser concentration of 18% unprocessed protein, less than
15% raw fiber, 30% content of ash, and feathers of 1%.
Processed animal unwanted products consist mainly of
excreta from large-scale poultry that have been processed to
Bioconversion of Poultry Waste into Added-Value Products
343
warm climate condition, it could result in great reduction in
the amount of feed consumed (Lopez-Mosquera et al. 2008).
Feeding poultry manure to other kinds of birds has been
stated by few researchers. Wehunt et al. (1960) advocated
that hydrolyzed broiler dung could be utilized in the portions
of other chicks that seem to be lacking protein. Quisenbery
and Bradley (1968) discovered that the performance of
layers depending on meals rich in 10–20% of crude litter and
manure was mostly preferable when compared to the controls that were given portions with balanced protein and
energy. They concluded that feeding poultry waste to other
kind of poultry is practically possible. The cost of drying the
litter seems to be the major factor limiting economic
importance of this method. The cogent reason for this
method is the administration of calcium and phosphorous.
This method could be used where these nutrients (calcium
and phosphorous) are lacking or where they are too expensive. Places with warm climates could pose a serious threat
on the well-being of animals for proper digestion of feed; the
introduction of this method would be very difficult to practice. This system could be possible with birds within 8–
22 weeks, where their litter could be interchanged for
by-products from mining (Olivera-Castillo et al. 2011).
Advanced methods indicated that minimizing the rate of
inflow of constituents from poultry waste achieving maximum result is possible for the exponential growth in fishes
that are found in warm areas. Tilapia fishes are found to be
common in this area and have great capability of using up
poultry waste (Olivera-Castillo et al. 2011). Durham et al.
(1966) experimented by feeding catfish in densely overstocked fish ponds, and they replaced 50% of conventional
fish feed with feedlot manure. Ponds stocked with 60,000
fishes per ha gave 8.25 tonnes of fish biomass yearly. So,
they concluded that there was no variation within yields
from conventional fed ponds and those fed with litter portions. Findings also revealed that poultry cages could be
constructed or pig pens on a wooden stand above fish and,
where fish consumes the manure. This system is time and
energy saving because there is no need of washing or
cleaning the poultry and pig house often, owing to the fact
that the poultry of pigs are situated above the fish ponds.
There is usually great air transmission which has a great
cooling importance on layers, predominately sensitive to
stress caused by heat and in pig also. This system increases
the management of waste of livestock, improves the income
gotten from fish, and completely removes problem of environmental pollution (Vezey and Dobbing 1975). It was
discovered that a layer hen will generate enough energy to
produce up to 6–8 kg of fish biomass yearly. This is more
effective in areas where fish pond could be used for cropping
at the end of every second year; this is a common practice in
Asia. Engaging in this kind of practice provides great
production of fishes that are free from diseases and greater
yields in farm produce.
Poultry dung maybe singly used or mixed using other
food supplement, and was discovered to have great value
when administered to both cows and sea life such as fishes.
Ruminant animals have the ability to use up the uric present
in poultry compost (Smith and Fries 1973). Nevertheless,
presence of alien matters like glass and plastic may disrupt
the digesting potentials of the poultry dung and could
hamper the health of the animals; hence, there is a need for
renewal of this method before application as feed to animals.
There is also need to reduce the ash content of the feed. It is
therefore suggested that poultry manure with great ash
content greater than 28% should not be given to animals.
This ash content is said to be increased when there is
removal of inherent soil from the dung (Williams et al.
1999). Unprocessed poultry dung contains pathogenic
microbial population like Enterobacter spp., Clostridium,
and Salmonella. Therefore, appropriate handling helps to
decrease the quantity of the microbes or makes poultry litter
pathogen-free (Mccaskey and Anthony 1979; Kawata et al.
2006; Watcharasukarn et al. 2009). Some fungal species that
are known to inhabit the excreta of birds can produce toxins,
also known as mycotoxins. These pathogenic microbes
could therefore be eliminated by fermentation through
chemical method, ensilation, or application of heat
(McCaskey and Martin jr 1988; Cook et al. 2008).
There was no case of disease situation reported via
feeding poultry litters to animals while following the standard methods, only copper toxicity has been found to be
great issue, usually in sheep. When there is excess administration of copper in the diet of birds as growth improving
agent, the birds excrete the copper in greater concentration in
their litter owing to the fact that they hardly digest copper in
their system. And sheep are less tolerant to diets with
increased copper content when fed with the dung from
broiler hens (Fontenot et al. 1975; Sharma et al. 2005). The
use of poultry litter has been in use for over four decades
now in United States. The litter containing great percentage
of peptides of amino acids, fiber that are digestible, and
essential minerals were purposefully incorporated in the diet
of ruminant. Usually this poultry waste is mostly utilized by
farmers that can produce beef and milk as winter supplement
for weaned calves and cattle. Although the method of
re-feeding animals with poultry waste appears to be absurd,
this practice is very non-toxic and meets with the stipulations
of Association of American Feed Control Officials
(AAFCO) (FDA 2009). Thermally dehydrated poultry litter
should have a moisture content of not more than 15% and
lesser concentration of 18% unprocessed protein, less than
15% raw fiber, 30% content of ash, and feathers of 1%.
Processed animal unwanted products consist mainly of
excreta from large-scale poultry that have been processed to
Bioconversion of Poultry Waste into Added-Value Products
343