Klockenbusch et al. 2012; Hopwood 1969). Therefore,
degreased soybean, which contains lysine and arginine,
reacts with HCHO in aqueous solutions and produces
reticulated soybean. In addition, bioplastics, which are
derived from this crop, are biodegradable and can be used in
agricultural materials like straw and seedling pots.
4.3 Shrimp Waste Bioplastic Applied to Food
Packaging Bags
There is growing interest regarding the use of biocomposite
materials for various manufacturing purposes, because of
their biodegradability, low carbon emissions, and low cost
(Elhussieny et al. 2020). Chitosan is used in several applications, e.g., pharmaceutical, agricultural, and water and
effluents treatment (McGhee et al. 1975). It is obtained from
the chitin found in crustacean exoskeletons (Cristiano 2017).
The extracted chitosan quality depends on the chitin
deacetylation degree, which is controlled by modifying the
time and temperature of the deacetylation process (Hossain
and Iqbal 2014). Deacetylation is considered an important
parameter that determines several physicochemical and
biological chitosan properties, including its degradation rate
(Antonino et al. 2017). Thus, the effect of different reaction
times on the chitosan deacetylation degree can be explored.
In addition, chitosan can be reinforced to overcome some of
its physical and mechanical limitations (Marjan et al. 2016).
Natural fibers (cellulose fibers) are used as reinforcement
fillers in several polymers (Nevena et al. 2016).
Chitosan reinforced with natural fillers is a promising
material to replace synthetic food packaging. Food packaging made from polyethylene is obtained from a nonrenewable source, petroleum, and requires up to 1,000 years
decomposing (Ismail et al. 2011). As the production of large
quantities of bags is associated with this long decomposition
time, because plastic bags represent an ecological problem
(Baxter 2018).
Food packaging bags made of natural materials, e.g.,
chitosan, do not present these negative environmental
impacts. Synthetic food packaging bags are typically made
of polyethylene. These materials exhibit a high resistance to
humidity, and they are lightweight. However, their long
degradation time causes an enormous problem regarding
waste (Hacker et al. 2019). One of the most significant types
of plastic pollution are the plastic bags used in supermarket
shopping. In Egypt, 2% of urban residues are disposed in
landfills, 8% is composted, 88% is disposed of in open areas,
and 2% is recycled. Plastic pollution in Egypt occurs
because of the lack of alternatives for composting this
material (AbouHagra 2017). Most plastic waste accumulates
on the streets or in illegal dumps, causing environmental and
public health problems.
The experimental and characterization stages begin with
the extraction of the chitosan from the shrimp bark residues.
Then, the deacetylation degree of the extracted chitosan is
controlled.
4.4 Cassava Waste Bioplastic Applied
to Biodegradable Films
Millions of tons of plastics are produced every year worldwide, and the resulting environmental impact caused
increases daily. Thus, producing biodegradable plastics from
renewable sources has been the most viable alternative.
Starch is a biopolymer matrix with great potential for the
development of biodegradable packaging (Shah et al. 2016).
Starch is an important polysaccharide in nature (La
Fuente et al. 2019; Junfeng and Jianjun 2011). Because it is
obtained from natural sources, the cost is reduced and it is
widely applicable. Consequently, starch is an extremely
versatile material that is used in the food, paper, textile,
chemical, and pharmaceutical industries (La Fuente et al.
2019). Starch sources are limited in nature, so improving the
mechanical properties of biodegradable films is interesting to
make the material even more versatile.
From the different starch modification possibilities, ozone
processing is the most environmentally correct, as it follows
all safety standards (Kaur et al. 2012). Ozone reacts with
starch, which due to its oxidizing power, reduces the
molecule size, and increases carboxyl and carbonyl content
(Castanha et al. 2017). Consequently, different properties
can be achieved from molecular modifications in size, load,
and chemical and electronic affinity. Corn, sago, wheat,
potatoes, and cassava are examples of some starch sources
that can be modified by ozonation process (Castanha et al.
2017, 2019; Çatal and Ibanoglu 2012; Chan et al. 2009,
2011; Klein et al. 2014).
The molecular and granulometric structure of compounds
that have the amino group are affected by ozonation of
several forms. For example, cassava has granules less than
50 micrometers (polygonal and spherical forms), and potato
starch contains larger and smaller granules (spherical and
oval ways) (Hung et al. 2017).
Therefore, reassembly behaviors are influenced by different molecular sizes and electrical charges from starch
sources. These molecular changes favor the film production
process. Consequently, the properties of films produced with
modified ozone starches are unpredictable and depend on
factors, e.g., sources, reactors, and processing conditions.
Thus, from the starch present in cassava, it is possible to
produce biodegradable films by the ozonation method, for
assessment the material conditions, such as its mechanical,
hurdle, and functional features, and morphology, crystallinity, and color.
Bioconversion of Food Waste into Bioplastics
291
degreased soybean, which contains lysine and arginine,
reacts with HCHO in aqueous solutions and produces
reticulated soybean. In addition, bioplastics, which are
derived from this crop, are biodegradable and can be used in
agricultural materials like straw and seedling pots.
4.3 Shrimp Waste Bioplastic Applied to Food
Packaging Bags
There is growing interest regarding the use of biocomposite
materials for various manufacturing purposes, because of
their biodegradability, low carbon emissions, and low cost
(Elhussieny et al. 2020). Chitosan is used in several applications, e.g., pharmaceutical, agricultural, and water and
effluents treatment (McGhee et al. 1975). It is obtained from
the chitin found in crustacean exoskeletons (Cristiano 2017).
The extracted chitosan quality depends on the chitin
deacetylation degree, which is controlled by modifying the
time and temperature of the deacetylation process (Hossain
and Iqbal 2014). Deacetylation is considered an important
parameter that determines several physicochemical and
biological chitosan properties, including its degradation rate
(Antonino et al. 2017). Thus, the effect of different reaction
times on the chitosan deacetylation degree can be explored.
In addition, chitosan can be reinforced to overcome some of
its physical and mechanical limitations (Marjan et al. 2016).
Natural fibers (cellulose fibers) are used as reinforcement
fillers in several polymers (Nevena et al. 2016).
Chitosan reinforced with natural fillers is a promising
material to replace synthetic food packaging. Food packaging made from polyethylene is obtained from a nonrenewable source, petroleum, and requires up to 1,000 years
decomposing (Ismail et al. 2011). As the production of large
quantities of bags is associated with this long decomposition
time, because plastic bags represent an ecological problem
(Baxter 2018).
Food packaging bags made of natural materials, e.g.,
chitosan, do not present these negative environmental
impacts. Synthetic food packaging bags are typically made
of polyethylene. These materials exhibit a high resistance to
humidity, and they are lightweight. However, their long
degradation time causes an enormous problem regarding
waste (Hacker et al. 2019). One of the most significant types
of plastic pollution are the plastic bags used in supermarket
shopping. In Egypt, 2% of urban residues are disposed in
landfills, 8% is composted, 88% is disposed of in open areas,
and 2% is recycled. Plastic pollution in Egypt occurs
because of the lack of alternatives for composting this
material (AbouHagra 2017). Most plastic waste accumulates
on the streets or in illegal dumps, causing environmental and
public health problems.
The experimental and characterization stages begin with
the extraction of the chitosan from the shrimp bark residues.
Then, the deacetylation degree of the extracted chitosan is
controlled.
4.4 Cassava Waste Bioplastic Applied
to Biodegradable Films
Millions of tons of plastics are produced every year worldwide, and the resulting environmental impact caused
increases daily. Thus, producing biodegradable plastics from
renewable sources has been the most viable alternative.
Starch is a biopolymer matrix with great potential for the
development of biodegradable packaging (Shah et al. 2016).
Starch is an important polysaccharide in nature (La
Fuente et al. 2019; Junfeng and Jianjun 2011). Because it is
obtained from natural sources, the cost is reduced and it is
widely applicable. Consequently, starch is an extremely
versatile material that is used in the food, paper, textile,
chemical, and pharmaceutical industries (La Fuente et al.
2019). Starch sources are limited in nature, so improving the
mechanical properties of biodegradable films is interesting to
make the material even more versatile.
From the different starch modification possibilities, ozone
processing is the most environmentally correct, as it follows
all safety standards (Kaur et al. 2012). Ozone reacts with
starch, which due to its oxidizing power, reduces the
molecule size, and increases carboxyl and carbonyl content
(Castanha et al. 2017). Consequently, different properties
can be achieved from molecular modifications in size, load,
and chemical and electronic affinity. Corn, sago, wheat,
potatoes, and cassava are examples of some starch sources
that can be modified by ozonation process (Castanha et al.
2017, 2019; Çatal and Ibanoglu 2012; Chan et al. 2009,
2011; Klein et al. 2014).
The molecular and granulometric structure of compounds
that have the amino group are affected by ozonation of
several forms. For example, cassava has granules less than
50 micrometers (polygonal and spherical forms), and potato
starch contains larger and smaller granules (spherical and
oval ways) (Hung et al. 2017).
Therefore, reassembly behaviors are influenced by different molecular sizes and electrical charges from starch
sources. These molecular changes favor the film production
process. Consequently, the properties of films produced with
modified ozone starches are unpredictable and depend on
factors, e.g., sources, reactors, and processing conditions.
Thus, from the starch present in cassava, it is possible to
produce biodegradable films by the ozonation method, for
assessment the material conditions, such as its mechanical,
hurdle, and functional features, and morphology, crystallinity, and color.
Bioconversion of Food Waste into Bioplastics
291