catalytic hydrogenation (Takata et al. 2014). Traditionally THFA can be produced by the two-step process (Hoydonckx et al. 2007; Nakagawa et al. 2013) where xylan is
first hydrolyzed followed by cyclodehydration of xylose
units (Machado et al. 2016).
12 Conclusion
LC biomass is rich in hemicelluloses in which xylan is the
main component. Xylan can be converted into xylose
through various chemical and biological methods. Xylose
can subsequently be utilized for the production of biofuels
and chemicals. Hence, substantial effort has been made to
develop microorganisms capable of efficient bioconversion of
xylose. Advanced genetic approaches have been employed to
the industrial strains such as S. cerevisiae, for the improvement of xylose fermentation by introducing heterologous
xylose transporter and catabolic genes to reconstruct artificial
pathways. Bioethanol and value-added chemicals, including
lactic acid, xylitol, GVL, and furfural are manufactured from
xylose by recombinant microorganisms with significant
improvement in the productions through metabolic engineering. Regardless of the successive genetic engineering,
there are still some limitations in xylose bioconversion, such
as repressive action by glucose, restrictions in
co-fermentation of glucose and xylose, and lower product
yield. Further progress is required in order to suppress glucose inhibition and to explore new xylose transporters.
References
Abdel-Hamid, A. M., Solbiati, J. O., & Cann, I. K. O. (2013). Insights
into lignin degradation and its potential industrial applications. In
Advances in Applied Microbiology.
Abdel-Rahman, M. A., Tashiro, Y., Zendo, T., Sakai, K., & Sonomoto,
K. (2016). Highly efficient L-lactic acid production from xylose in
cell recycle continuous fermentation using Enterococcus mundtii
QU 25. RSC Advances. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ra27579b.
Abdeshahian, P., Samat, N., Hamid, A. A., & Yusoff, W. M. W.
(2010). Utilization of palm kernel cake for production of
b-mannanase by Aspergillus niger FTCC 5003 in solid substrate
fermentation using an aerated column bioreactor. Journal of
Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s10295-009-0658-0.
Ackerson, M. D., Clausen, E. C., & Gaddy, J. L. (1991). Production of
ethanol from MSW. In Proceedings of the Intersociety Energy
Conversion Engineering Conference.
Agbogbo, F. K., Coward-Kelly, G., Torry-Smith, M., Wenger, K., &
Jeffries, T. W. (2007). The effect of initial cell concentration on
xylose fermentation by Pichia stipitis. In Applied Biochemistry and
Biotechnology.
Agrawal, M., Mao, Z., & Chen, R. R. (2011). Adaptation yields a highly
efficient xylose-fermenting Zymomonas mobilis strain. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.23021.
Ali, S. S., Wu, J., Xie, R., Zhou, F., Sun, J., & Huang, M. (2017).
Screening and characterizing of xylanolytic and xylose-fermenting
yeasts isolated from the wood-feeding termite, Reticulitermes
chinensis. PLoS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.
0181141.
Alves-prado, H. F., Pavezzi, F. C., Simões, R., Leite, R., De Oliveira,
V. M., Sette, L. D., Dasilva, R. (2010). Screening and production
study of microbial xylanase producers from Brazilian Cerrado
(pp. 333–346). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-009-8823-5.
Attfield, P. V., & Bell, P. J. L. (2006). Use of population genetics to
derive nonrecombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains that grow
using xylose as a sole carbon source. FEMS Yeast Research. https://
doi.org/10.1111/j.1567-1364.2006.00098.x.
Azmi, A. S., Malek, M. I. A., & Puad, N. I. M. (2017). A review on acid
and enzymatic hydrolyses of sago starch. Int: International Food
Research Journal.
Azzam, A. M. (1989). Pretreatment of cane bagasse with alkaline
hydrogen peroxide for enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose and
ethanol fermentation. Journal of Environmental Science and
Health, Part B. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601238909372658.
Bajpai, P. (2014). Microbial xylanolytic systems and their properties. In
Xylanolytic Enzymes.
Balat, M., Balat, H., Öz, C. (2008). Progress in bioethanol processing.
Progress in Energy and Combustion Science.
Battaglia, E., Hansen, S. F., Leendertse, A., Madrid, S., Mulder, H.,
Nikolaev, I., et al. (2011). Regulation of pentose utilisation by
AraR, but not XlnR, differs in Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus
niger. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s00253-011-3242-2.
Belgacem, M. N., Gandini, A. (2008). Monomers, polymers and
composites from renewable resources.
Bhardwaj, N., Kumar, B., & Verma, P. (2019). A detailed overview of
xylanases: An emerging biomolecule for current and future
prospective. Bioresources and Bioprocessing.
Bhaumik, P., & Dhepe, P. L. (2016) Conversion of biomass into sugars.
In RSC Green Chemistry.
Biely, P., Puls, J., & Schneider, H. (1985). Acetyl xylan esterases in
fungal cellulolytic systems. FEBS Letters. https://doi.org/10.1016/
0014-5793(85)81343-0.
Binder, J. B., & Raines, R. T. (2010). Fermentable sugars by chemical
hydrolysis of biomass. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America. https://doi.org/10.1073/
pnas.0912073107.
Bonnin, E., Saulnier, L., Brunel, M., Marot, C., Lesage-Meessen, L.,
Asther, M., et al. (2002). Release of ferulic acid from agroindustrial
by-products by the cell wall-degrading enzymes produced by
Aspergillus niger I-1472. Enyzme and Microbial Technology.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-0229(02)00236-3.
Brown, S. D., Sander, K. B, Wu, C.-W., & Guss, A. M. (2015).
Clostridium thermocellum. In Direct Microbial Conversion of
Biomass to Advanced Biofuels.
Bruinenberg, P. M. (1986). The NADP(H) redox couple in yeast
metabolism.酵母の代謝におけるNADPHのレドックス対. Antonie Van
Leeuwenhoek.
Brummer, V., Skryja, P., Jurena, T., Hlavacek, V., & Stehlik, P. (2014).
Suitable technological conditions for enzymatic hydrolysis of waste
paper by Novozymes® Enzymes NS50013 and NS50010. Applied
Biochemistry and Biotechnology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010014-1119-4.
Budhathoki, U., Thapa, P., & Poluri, E. (2011). Medium optimization
of production of xylanase by solid state fermentation from
Brevibacillus borstelensis-MTCC 9874 isolated from soil sample
of eastern Nepal. Malaysian Journal of Microbiology, 7, 83–91.
https://doi.org/10.21161/mjm.27310.
260
R. Rashid et al.
first hydrolyzed followed by cyclodehydration of xylose
units (Machado et al. 2016).
12 Conclusion
LC biomass is rich in hemicelluloses in which xylan is the
main component. Xylan can be converted into xylose
through various chemical and biological methods. Xylose
can subsequently be utilized for the production of biofuels
and chemicals. Hence, substantial effort has been made to
develop microorganisms capable of efficient bioconversion of
xylose. Advanced genetic approaches have been employed to
the industrial strains such as S. cerevisiae, for the improvement of xylose fermentation by introducing heterologous
xylose transporter and catabolic genes to reconstruct artificial
pathways. Bioethanol and value-added chemicals, including
lactic acid, xylitol, GVL, and furfural are manufactured from
xylose by recombinant microorganisms with significant
improvement in the productions through metabolic engineering. Regardless of the successive genetic engineering,
there are still some limitations in xylose bioconversion, such
as repressive action by glucose, restrictions in
co-fermentation of glucose and xylose, and lower product
yield. Further progress is required in order to suppress glucose inhibition and to explore new xylose transporters.
References
Abdel-Hamid, A. M., Solbiati, J. O., & Cann, I. K. O. (2013). Insights
into lignin degradation and its potential industrial applications. In
Advances in Applied Microbiology.
Abdel-Rahman, M. A., Tashiro, Y., Zendo, T., Sakai, K., & Sonomoto,
K. (2016). Highly efficient L-lactic acid production from xylose in
cell recycle continuous fermentation using Enterococcus mundtii
QU 25. RSC Advances. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ra27579b.
Abdeshahian, P., Samat, N., Hamid, A. A., & Yusoff, W. M. W.
(2010). Utilization of palm kernel cake for production of
b-mannanase by Aspergillus niger FTCC 5003 in solid substrate
fermentation using an aerated column bioreactor. Journal of
Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s10295-009-0658-0.
Ackerson, M. D., Clausen, E. C., & Gaddy, J. L. (1991). Production of
ethanol from MSW. In Proceedings of the Intersociety Energy
Conversion Engineering Conference.
Agbogbo, F. K., Coward-Kelly, G., Torry-Smith, M., Wenger, K., &
Jeffries, T. W. (2007). The effect of initial cell concentration on
xylose fermentation by Pichia stipitis. In Applied Biochemistry and
Biotechnology.
Agrawal, M., Mao, Z., & Chen, R. R. (2011). Adaptation yields a highly
efficient xylose-fermenting Zymomonas mobilis strain. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.23021.
Ali, S. S., Wu, J., Xie, R., Zhou, F., Sun, J., & Huang, M. (2017).
Screening and characterizing of xylanolytic and xylose-fermenting
yeasts isolated from the wood-feeding termite, Reticulitermes
chinensis. PLoS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.
0181141.
Alves-prado, H. F., Pavezzi, F. C., Simões, R., Leite, R., De Oliveira,
V. M., Sette, L. D., Dasilva, R. (2010). Screening and production
study of microbial xylanase producers from Brazilian Cerrado
(pp. 333–346). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-009-8823-5.
Attfield, P. V., & Bell, P. J. L. (2006). Use of population genetics to
derive nonrecombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains that grow
using xylose as a sole carbon source. FEMS Yeast Research. https://
doi.org/10.1111/j.1567-1364.2006.00098.x.
Azmi, A. S., Malek, M. I. A., & Puad, N. I. M. (2017). A review on acid
and enzymatic hydrolyses of sago starch. Int: International Food
Research Journal.
Azzam, A. M. (1989). Pretreatment of cane bagasse with alkaline
hydrogen peroxide for enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose and
ethanol fermentation. Journal of Environmental Science and
Health, Part B. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601238909372658.
Bajpai, P. (2014). Microbial xylanolytic systems and their properties. In
Xylanolytic Enzymes.
Balat, M., Balat, H., Öz, C. (2008). Progress in bioethanol processing.
Progress in Energy and Combustion Science.
Battaglia, E., Hansen, S. F., Leendertse, A., Madrid, S., Mulder, H.,
Nikolaev, I., et al. (2011). Regulation of pentose utilisation by
AraR, but not XlnR, differs in Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus
niger. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s00253-011-3242-2.
Belgacem, M. N., Gandini, A. (2008). Monomers, polymers and
composites from renewable resources.
Bhardwaj, N., Kumar, B., & Verma, P. (2019). A detailed overview of
xylanases: An emerging biomolecule for current and future
prospective. Bioresources and Bioprocessing.
Bhaumik, P., & Dhepe, P. L. (2016) Conversion of biomass into sugars.
In RSC Green Chemistry.
Biely, P., Puls, J., & Schneider, H. (1985). Acetyl xylan esterases in
fungal cellulolytic systems. FEBS Letters. https://doi.org/10.1016/
0014-5793(85)81343-0.
Binder, J. B., & Raines, R. T. (2010). Fermentable sugars by chemical
hydrolysis of biomass. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America. https://doi.org/10.1073/
pnas.0912073107.
Bonnin, E., Saulnier, L., Brunel, M., Marot, C., Lesage-Meessen, L.,
Asther, M., et al. (2002). Release of ferulic acid from agroindustrial
by-products by the cell wall-degrading enzymes produced by
Aspergillus niger I-1472. Enyzme and Microbial Technology.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-0229(02)00236-3.
Brown, S. D., Sander, K. B, Wu, C.-W., & Guss, A. M. (2015).
Clostridium thermocellum. In Direct Microbial Conversion of
Biomass to Advanced Biofuels.
Bruinenberg, P. M. (1986). The NADP(H) redox couple in yeast
metabolism.酵母の代謝におけるNADPHのレドックス対. Antonie Van
Leeuwenhoek.
Brummer, V., Skryja, P., Jurena, T., Hlavacek, V., & Stehlik, P. (2014).
Suitable technological conditions for enzymatic hydrolysis of waste
paper by Novozymes® Enzymes NS50013 and NS50010. Applied
Biochemistry and Biotechnology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010014-1119-4.
Budhathoki, U., Thapa, P., & Poluri, E. (2011). Medium optimization
of production of xylanase by solid state fermentation from
Brevibacillus borstelensis-MTCC 9874 isolated from soil sample
of eastern Nepal. Malaysian Journal of Microbiology, 7, 83–91.
https://doi.org/10.21161/mjm.27310.
260
R. Rashid et al.