matter. The concentration of organic nitrogen is about
28.4 mg/g in the ash-free dry matter, which declines when
cow dung is anaerobically treated (Kirchmann and Witter
1989). For this reason, the organic C/N ratio shows different
value in aerobic and anaerobic decomposition. In anaerobically treated cow dung, C/N ratio is 19.6, which is higher
than the fresh dung (C/N ratio 18.6). However, organic
materials with C/N ratio more than 18 can cause immobilisation of nitrogen (Kirchmann and Witter 1992).
In the process of treatment of cow dung, due to gaseous
loss, mass is reduced from the total material. In aerobic
condition, organic matter, as well as carbon losses increase
significantly that is 27.9% of total carbon during this process, whereas in the anaerobic condition, the loss is comparatively less (Kirchmann 1985). Regarding the loss of
nitrogen, studies show that during the anaerobic condition,
little or no nitrogen loss occurs, but during the aerobic
condition, nitrogen loss is higher (Russell and Richards
1917). Therefore, anaerobic storage condition is recommended over aerobic in case of efficient conservation of
nitrogen.
4 Conventional Use of Cow Dung
Energy can be harnessed from cow dung in various ways, as
discussed below. However, the most common use of cow
dung is either as solid fuel or as fertiliser. Generally, composting of cow dung converts it into useful, inexpensive—
yet effective fertiliser. Hence, this is one of the most common applications of cow dung throughout the world.
Moreover, cow dung as solid fuel is another conventional
application—commonly practised in rural areas. Figure 7
shows the typical application of cow dung and highlights
their economic and environmental impact.
4.1 Cow Dung as Fertiliser
Cow dung is one of the most effective alternatives to
chemical fertilisers; generally known as a bio-fertiliser; it
can significantly increase the productivity of the soil. Due to
the expeditious nutrient loss, growing costs and noxious
environmental effects from inorganic fertilisers, organic
manure such as composted cow dung has received considerable attention, and it is acting as a source of plant nutrients
for the cultivation of field crops (Place et al. 2003; Duncan
2005). Numerous green organisations advocate the use of
cow dung as organic fertiliser in order to promote environmental sustainability.
Cow dung compost can substantially improve the
physicochemical properties of soil. However, the application
of raw cow dung as fertiliser should ensure that it does not
release any pathogens in clean water sources. Composting is
considered as a safe method for providing nutrients to the
soil as it prevents environmental contamination by expelling
harmful pathogens from organic fertilisers. Compost is
considered as a good fertiliser consisting of minerals, humus,
and most importantly, it is pathogen-free.
Utilisation of composted cow dung as a fertiliser has
numerous advantages such as improving the water holding
capacity, enhancing the water infiltration, improving the
cation exchange capacity of the soil and aeration (break up
compacted soils). Production of agroforestry crops requires
highly fertile soil, and composted cow dung can maintain the
production capacity of the land at its highest level (Ajayi
2007).
Although chemical fertiliser disturbs the soil physiochemical properties (e.g., water holding capacity, soil texture
and porosity), owing to the rapid growth of population, the
requirement of food resources is increasing simultaneously
that leads to using the chemical fertiliser (Jhariya and Raj
2014). However, the physio-chemical soil properties can be
retained at its maximum level by using the appropriate
expanse of composted cow dung as fertiliser (Raj et al.
2014). Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) are the
three fundamental plant nutrients that can be sufficiently
provided if manure is used properly because cow dung has a
significant amount of NPK in a ratio of 3:2:1 (Fulhage
2000).
However, it is generally suggested to use cow manure
after composting as it also contains potentially unsafe
pathogens and substantial amount of ammonia that can burn
the plants. Besides providing the required plant nutrients,
manure also aids the growth of beneficial soil organisms.
Mandal et al. suggested that 50–92% more yield in Aonla
can be produced if bio-fertilisers, organic and inorganics
fertiliser can be used in appropriate proportion (Mandal et al.
2013). According to Williams et al. if manure is combined
with inorganic fertiliser (nitrogen), then it can lessen the soil
acidification and significantly increase the soil productivity
by releasing sufficient amount of nutrients (Williams et al.
1995). It can be concluded that composted cow dung
assimilates substantial quantities of organic material to the
soil, which may eventually improve the overall health of the
soil and produce healthy, vigorous plants.
4.2 Cow Dung as Solid Fuel
In order to use cow dung as a fuel, it is dried in any shape
(natural, round, flat dung cakes or moulded around a stick)
prior to combustion. In order to improve the burning performance of dung, it is sometimes mixed with coal dust or
agricultural residues which helps to increase the energy
density (Masud et al. 2019).
222
A. A. Ananno et al.
28.4 mg/g in the ash-free dry matter, which declines when
cow dung is anaerobically treated (Kirchmann and Witter
1989). For this reason, the organic C/N ratio shows different
value in aerobic and anaerobic decomposition. In anaerobically treated cow dung, C/N ratio is 19.6, which is higher
than the fresh dung (C/N ratio 18.6). However, organic
materials with C/N ratio more than 18 can cause immobilisation of nitrogen (Kirchmann and Witter 1992).
In the process of treatment of cow dung, due to gaseous
loss, mass is reduced from the total material. In aerobic
condition, organic matter, as well as carbon losses increase
significantly that is 27.9% of total carbon during this process, whereas in the anaerobic condition, the loss is comparatively less (Kirchmann 1985). Regarding the loss of
nitrogen, studies show that during the anaerobic condition,
little or no nitrogen loss occurs, but during the aerobic
condition, nitrogen loss is higher (Russell and Richards
1917). Therefore, anaerobic storage condition is recommended over aerobic in case of efficient conservation of
nitrogen.
4 Conventional Use of Cow Dung
Energy can be harnessed from cow dung in various ways, as
discussed below. However, the most common use of cow
dung is either as solid fuel or as fertiliser. Generally, composting of cow dung converts it into useful, inexpensive—
yet effective fertiliser. Hence, this is one of the most common applications of cow dung throughout the world.
Moreover, cow dung as solid fuel is another conventional
application—commonly practised in rural areas. Figure 7
shows the typical application of cow dung and highlights
their economic and environmental impact.
4.1 Cow Dung as Fertiliser
Cow dung is one of the most effective alternatives to
chemical fertilisers; generally known as a bio-fertiliser; it
can significantly increase the productivity of the soil. Due to
the expeditious nutrient loss, growing costs and noxious
environmental effects from inorganic fertilisers, organic
manure such as composted cow dung has received considerable attention, and it is acting as a source of plant nutrients
for the cultivation of field crops (Place et al. 2003; Duncan
2005). Numerous green organisations advocate the use of
cow dung as organic fertiliser in order to promote environmental sustainability.
Cow dung compost can substantially improve the
physicochemical properties of soil. However, the application
of raw cow dung as fertiliser should ensure that it does not
release any pathogens in clean water sources. Composting is
considered as a safe method for providing nutrients to the
soil as it prevents environmental contamination by expelling
harmful pathogens from organic fertilisers. Compost is
considered as a good fertiliser consisting of minerals, humus,
and most importantly, it is pathogen-free.
Utilisation of composted cow dung as a fertiliser has
numerous advantages such as improving the water holding
capacity, enhancing the water infiltration, improving the
cation exchange capacity of the soil and aeration (break up
compacted soils). Production of agroforestry crops requires
highly fertile soil, and composted cow dung can maintain the
production capacity of the land at its highest level (Ajayi
2007).
Although chemical fertiliser disturbs the soil physiochemical properties (e.g., water holding capacity, soil texture
and porosity), owing to the rapid growth of population, the
requirement of food resources is increasing simultaneously
that leads to using the chemical fertiliser (Jhariya and Raj
2014). However, the physio-chemical soil properties can be
retained at its maximum level by using the appropriate
expanse of composted cow dung as fertiliser (Raj et al.
2014). Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) are the
three fundamental plant nutrients that can be sufficiently
provided if manure is used properly because cow dung has a
significant amount of NPK in a ratio of 3:2:1 (Fulhage
2000).
However, it is generally suggested to use cow manure
after composting as it also contains potentially unsafe
pathogens and substantial amount of ammonia that can burn
the plants. Besides providing the required plant nutrients,
manure also aids the growth of beneficial soil organisms.
Mandal et al. suggested that 50–92% more yield in Aonla
can be produced if bio-fertilisers, organic and inorganics
fertiliser can be used in appropriate proportion (Mandal et al.
2013). According to Williams et al. if manure is combined
with inorganic fertiliser (nitrogen), then it can lessen the soil
acidification and significantly increase the soil productivity
by releasing sufficient amount of nutrients (Williams et al.
1995). It can be concluded that composted cow dung
assimilates substantial quantities of organic material to the
soil, which may eventually improve the overall health of the
soil and produce healthy, vigorous plants.
4.2 Cow Dung as Solid Fuel
In order to use cow dung as a fuel, it is dried in any shape
(natural, round, flat dung cakes or moulded around a stick)
prior to combustion. In order to improve the burning performance of dung, it is sometimes mixed with coal dust or
agricultural residues which helps to increase the energy
density (Masud et al. 2019).
222
A. A. Ananno et al.