phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium. Its application to
subsoil promotes the faster growth of agricultural plants
(Stabnikova et al. 2010).
2.4.2 Biopesticide
The lack of large-scale production of biopesticides is one of
the major constraints in the wider application of many
biopesticides. The aqueous extracts of carob pulp have been
reported as a carbon source in the manufacture of Pantoeaagglomerans PBC-1, which is used as a biopesticide.
A 78% reduction in pathogen incidence was achieved with
PBC-1 at 1-108 cfu/ml of fermentation media. Extracts of
cucumber plant waste (leaves, stem, and roots excluding
flowers and fruit) have been investigated to slow down the
germination and growth of barnyard grass under laboratory
and greenhouse conditions. It is a potent weed in rice fields
that has caused enormous losses in rice production. Two
active growth inhibitors, hydroxymegastigmadienone and
trihydroxymegastigmadienone, were extracted from the
aqueous methane extract of cucumber processing waste.
Another antifungal compound was isolated from the pumpkin rind and labeled Pr-1 promoter that inhibited potentially
the growth of a variety of fungi (Wadhwa et al. 2015).
Several classes of organisms, mainly parasitoids, predators, and microorganisms, are used as effective pest controls.
The application of mycoparasitic and entomopathogenic
fungi has received special notification for the biocontrol of
insects and pests in agriculture. Global demand for biopesticides was constantly increasing at a rapid rate from 2012.
Naturally occurring B. bassiana strains were isolated for
massive biopesticide production using a dry cassava bagasse
as a substrate. This methodology is very simple,
cost-effective, and has been adopted by many farmers and
their families. This has also been shown that the fungus is
harmless to humans and wildlife. Entomopathogenic fungi
produce some toxins that can be used as an insecticide. B.
bassiana is also known to effectively produce significant
amounts of toxins such as brassinolide, beauvericin, and
beauverolide in the host body.
2.4.3 Bionanocomposite
The researches in the field of edible coatings (ECs) are
nowadays a developing area because of the inherent hazardous effects of synthetic coatings. ECs can be used to
shield fruit from fungal growth under post-harvest conditions using different matrices and active compounds
(essential oils and food preservatives). Antagonistic
microorganisms bearing ECs are used in both pre-and
post-harvest levels area less explored. To develop ECs on
the surface of the fruits or vegetable, a homogeneous dispersion of polymeric materials of film-forming solution is
required. Coatings with food-grade polymers or ingredients
are edible along with the whole fruit and vegetables which
can be directly consumed. It is compulsory to satisfy the
food regulatory policies while developing composition for
ECs. The basic components of ECs include hydrocolloids
and lipids, which can be used either separately or in composite forms. Composite coatings possess improved flexibility, extensibility, and stability. These formulations can
also serve as a carrier of a broad range of other antioxidants,
antimicrobials, vitamins, flavorings, or colorants.
A layer-by-layer technology is used to produce multilayered
coatings and provide effective enhancement of fruit quality
during storage (Poverenov et al. 2013). Normally, ECs on
fruit and vegetables can improve their conservation by using
diverse polysaccharides or proteins. Polysaccharides have
the ability to improve physical and microbial stability,
especially in relatively high humidity environments. Lipids
with low water vapor permeability are also used in fruit ECs.
TALProlong and Semperfresh are examples of ECs that are
currently available in the market based on carboxymethylcellulose, sodium salt, sucrose fatty acid ester, and emulsifier. The ECs developed from FVW are now used to extend
the shelf life of bananas and other fruits. Extensive work has
been carried out on ECs to improve shelf life and the quality
of fruits. Muangdech developed ECs from aloe vera gel,
carnauba wax, and chitosan to improve mango post-harvest
shelf life. The microbial decay cannot be effectively controlled by using biopolymer components alone in ECs.
Therefore, the incorporation of food-grade antimicrobial
agents into the formulations can provide better coating
characteristics. The developed ECs with antimicrobial
properties are found to be more effective compared to the
direct use of antimicrobial agents, because the migration of
active compounds from ECs to the surface of the fruits is
slow. An ideal EC is engineered to act as a carrier of biocontrol agents throughout the storage of the final product,
both in terms of nutritional point of view and durability
(Marín et al. 2017).
3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
The optimization and development of biochemical parameters to improve the performance of biorefinery systems with
reduced costs are currently a booming area of research in
order to introduce the current outcomes to industries. A variety of processing methods including simple pretreatment to
Potential Utilisation of Fruit and Vegetable Waste: An Overview
189
subsoil promotes the faster growth of agricultural plants
(Stabnikova et al. 2010).
2.4.2 Biopesticide
The lack of large-scale production of biopesticides is one of
the major constraints in the wider application of many
biopesticides. The aqueous extracts of carob pulp have been
reported as a carbon source in the manufacture of Pantoeaagglomerans PBC-1, which is used as a biopesticide.
A 78% reduction in pathogen incidence was achieved with
PBC-1 at 1-108 cfu/ml of fermentation media. Extracts of
cucumber plant waste (leaves, stem, and roots excluding
flowers and fruit) have been investigated to slow down the
germination and growth of barnyard grass under laboratory
and greenhouse conditions. It is a potent weed in rice fields
that has caused enormous losses in rice production. Two
active growth inhibitors, hydroxymegastigmadienone and
trihydroxymegastigmadienone, were extracted from the
aqueous methane extract of cucumber processing waste.
Another antifungal compound was isolated from the pumpkin rind and labeled Pr-1 promoter that inhibited potentially
the growth of a variety of fungi (Wadhwa et al. 2015).
Several classes of organisms, mainly parasitoids, predators, and microorganisms, are used as effective pest controls.
The application of mycoparasitic and entomopathogenic
fungi has received special notification for the biocontrol of
insects and pests in agriculture. Global demand for biopesticides was constantly increasing at a rapid rate from 2012.
Naturally occurring B. bassiana strains were isolated for
massive biopesticide production using a dry cassava bagasse
as a substrate. This methodology is very simple,
cost-effective, and has been adopted by many farmers and
their families. This has also been shown that the fungus is
harmless to humans and wildlife. Entomopathogenic fungi
produce some toxins that can be used as an insecticide. B.
bassiana is also known to effectively produce significant
amounts of toxins such as brassinolide, beauvericin, and
beauverolide in the host body.
2.4.3 Bionanocomposite
The researches in the field of edible coatings (ECs) are
nowadays a developing area because of the inherent hazardous effects of synthetic coatings. ECs can be used to
shield fruit from fungal growth under post-harvest conditions using different matrices and active compounds
(essential oils and food preservatives). Antagonistic
microorganisms bearing ECs are used in both pre-and
post-harvest levels area less explored. To develop ECs on
the surface of the fruits or vegetable, a homogeneous dispersion of polymeric materials of film-forming solution is
required. Coatings with food-grade polymers or ingredients
are edible along with the whole fruit and vegetables which
can be directly consumed. It is compulsory to satisfy the
food regulatory policies while developing composition for
ECs. The basic components of ECs include hydrocolloids
and lipids, which can be used either separately or in composite forms. Composite coatings possess improved flexibility, extensibility, and stability. These formulations can
also serve as a carrier of a broad range of other antioxidants,
antimicrobials, vitamins, flavorings, or colorants.
A layer-by-layer technology is used to produce multilayered
coatings and provide effective enhancement of fruit quality
during storage (Poverenov et al. 2013). Normally, ECs on
fruit and vegetables can improve their conservation by using
diverse polysaccharides or proteins. Polysaccharides have
the ability to improve physical and microbial stability,
especially in relatively high humidity environments. Lipids
with low water vapor permeability are also used in fruit ECs.
TALProlong and Semperfresh are examples of ECs that are
currently available in the market based on carboxymethylcellulose, sodium salt, sucrose fatty acid ester, and emulsifier. The ECs developed from FVW are now used to extend
the shelf life of bananas and other fruits. Extensive work has
been carried out on ECs to improve shelf life and the quality
of fruits. Muangdech developed ECs from aloe vera gel,
carnauba wax, and chitosan to improve mango post-harvest
shelf life. The microbial decay cannot be effectively controlled by using biopolymer components alone in ECs.
Therefore, the incorporation of food-grade antimicrobial
agents into the formulations can provide better coating
characteristics. The developed ECs with antimicrobial
properties are found to be more effective compared to the
direct use of antimicrobial agents, because the migration of
active compounds from ECs to the surface of the fruits is
slow. An ideal EC is engineered to act as a carrier of biocontrol agents throughout the storage of the final product,
both in terms of nutritional point of view and durability
(Marín et al. 2017).
3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
The optimization and development of biochemical parameters to improve the performance of biorefinery systems with
reduced costs are currently a booming area of research in
order to introduce the current outcomes to industries. A variety of processing methods including simple pretreatment to
Potential Utilisation of Fruit and Vegetable Waste: An Overview
189