tested for the production of itaconic acid, A. niger produced
the highest amount in SSF (Ramakrishnan et al. 2014).
Succinic acid is commonly used in industries for the manufacture of green solvents, biodegradable plastics, and
ingredients used to promote plant growth. The production of
succinic acid from sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolyzate using A. succinogenes was reported (Ribeiro et al.
2011). The study found that the use of sodium bicarbonate,
magnesium sulphate, and yeast extract improves the production of succinic acid. Sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose
hydrolyzate was utilized to design a greener and economical
process for succinic acid production (Dai and Xu 2013).
Ultrasound-assisted dilute acid hydrolysis was reported to be
a cost-effective, time- and energy-saving method for the
hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse. Wei et al. reported the
butyric acid production by fermentation of sugarcane
bagasse hydrolyzate using Clostridium tyrobutyricum. The
acid pretreatment followed by enzymatical saccharification
of sugarcane bagasse was demonstrated as the first feasible
study for producing butyric acid without any detoxification.
Gluconic acid is a dehydrogenation form of D-glucose and is
produced by surface fermentation methods and is used in the
milk, pharmaceutical, textile, cement, and chemical industries (Sindhu et al. 2016). The production of fumaric acid
using waste biomass from the apple industry by Rhizopus
oryzae was assessed by Das et al., in 2015. The result
showed high fumaric acid yields by SSF compared to submerged fermentation. Also, the better yield of fumaric acid
was recorded using small fungal pellets than larger pellets.
2.2.2 Essential Oils
The essential oils derived from lemon and lime peels often
have a value of 20 times the value of their juice. Citrus
terpenes, mainly D-limonene, are extracted from the peel oil.
D-limonene is used for the preparation of hand cleaners and
thinners. Citrus peels are considered as a potential source of
essential oil and about 0.5–3.0 kg of essential oil/tone of
fruit can be extracted. Essential oils from the citrus peel are
usually used in soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, confectioneries, perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, and household goods
due to its aromatic fragrance. It is also used to mask the
bitter taste of drugs in pharmaceuticals. It increases the shelf
life and nutrition of fresh fruit, skim milk, and low-fat milk.
It also has a wide range of antibacterial action. Bitter and
sweet orange oils are utilized in tea formulations as well as
in carmin and laxative preparations. D-limonene extracted
from lemon essential oil enhances immunity, counteracts
feeling depression, improves the clarity of thinking and
intention, energizes and strengthens the mind and body,
activates and removes emotional barriers, encourages skin
health, and decreases the appearance of wrinkles. Dry bitter
orange oil is used in the treatment of uterine and rectal
prolapse, diarrhea, and piles. Banana peel contains 2.2–
10.9% lipids that are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, in
particular linoleic acid and a-linolenic acid. Such fatty acids
contribute to the prevention of atherosclerosis, cancer, heart
disease, and diabetes. The Canadian black currant oil is a
good source of essential fatty acids, tocopherols, and phytosterols. Dry tomato seed contains approximately 17%
sugar, rich in linoleic and oleic acids, followed by linolenic
and palmitoleic acids. Dry tomato peels contain 2.7% oleoresin, which in turn contains 7.2% lycopene. Oleoresin may
be incorporated into the oil in quantities appropriate to the
level of enrichment desired by the lycopene. Grapes seed oil
is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid.
Passion fruit seed oil is edible and rich in unsaturated fatty
acids namely linoleic and oleic acids. Fuel has free radical
scavenging practices. Peach seed oil may also be used as
edible oil. It contains 8.0% palmitic acid, 0.3% stearic acid,
55.1% oleic acid, and 36.5% linoleic acid. This can also be
used for the manufacture of soap. Peach seed oil is richer in
oleic and linoleic acids than in tomato seed oil (Wadhwa
et al. 2015).
2.2.3 Bioadsorbents
Bio-adsorption is known to be an effective and low-cost
method since it uses low-cost and abundant biomaterials,
usually wastes to remove heavy metals and dyes from water.
It also reduces the release of biological or chemical sludge in
the atmosphere and allows for the recovery of biosorbents
capable of recovering metals. Nawirska and Kwahave suggested chokeberry and apple pomace as heavy metal
biosorbents. Mango peel was used as a biosorbent to extract
Cd and Pb from an aqueous solution. A rapid biosorption rate, i.e., reaching stabilization at 60 min, was observed
for both metals. A similar study reported the effective
removal of Cu
2+ , Ni
2+ , and Zn
2+ from constituted metal
solutions and the actual wastewater electroplating industry
using mango peel waste. Ahmed et al. examined the ability
of activated carbon derived from date pits to eliminate
contaminants such as heavy metals, phenolic compounds,
dyes, and pesticides. Date ash pits had a noticeably higher
efficiency of boron (71%) and phenol removal from contaminated drinking water relative to power plant ash and
pine ash. Peach stone particles have the ability to biosorp
mycotoxin under in vitro conditions due to their rather high
cellulose content (58.5%). The biological polymers namely
lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose in peach shells contain
numerous hydroxyl and phenolic groups that can be chemically modified to create adsorbent materials with excellent
adsorbent properties. Powdered stem and leaf of pineapple
can be used as cheaper adsorbents to adsorb methylene blue
from aqueous solution. Effective biosorbants have been
produced from pineapple fruit residues to remove toxic
metals like copper, mercury, zinc, lead, nickel, and cadmium. Some researchers reported chemical modification of
Potential Utilisation of Fruit and Vegetable Waste: An Overview
185
the highest amount in SSF (Ramakrishnan et al. 2014).
Succinic acid is commonly used in industries for the manufacture of green solvents, biodegradable plastics, and
ingredients used to promote plant growth. The production of
succinic acid from sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolyzate using A. succinogenes was reported (Ribeiro et al.
2011). The study found that the use of sodium bicarbonate,
magnesium sulphate, and yeast extract improves the production of succinic acid. Sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose
hydrolyzate was utilized to design a greener and economical
process for succinic acid production (Dai and Xu 2013).
Ultrasound-assisted dilute acid hydrolysis was reported to be
a cost-effective, time- and energy-saving method for the
hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse. Wei et al. reported the
butyric acid production by fermentation of sugarcane
bagasse hydrolyzate using Clostridium tyrobutyricum. The
acid pretreatment followed by enzymatical saccharification
of sugarcane bagasse was demonstrated as the first feasible
study for producing butyric acid without any detoxification.
Gluconic acid is a dehydrogenation form of D-glucose and is
produced by surface fermentation methods and is used in the
milk, pharmaceutical, textile, cement, and chemical industries (Sindhu et al. 2016). The production of fumaric acid
using waste biomass from the apple industry by Rhizopus
oryzae was assessed by Das et al., in 2015. The result
showed high fumaric acid yields by SSF compared to submerged fermentation. Also, the better yield of fumaric acid
was recorded using small fungal pellets than larger pellets.
2.2.2 Essential Oils
The essential oils derived from lemon and lime peels often
have a value of 20 times the value of their juice. Citrus
terpenes, mainly D-limonene, are extracted from the peel oil.
D-limonene is used for the preparation of hand cleaners and
thinners. Citrus peels are considered as a potential source of
essential oil and about 0.5–3.0 kg of essential oil/tone of
fruit can be extracted. Essential oils from the citrus peel are
usually used in soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, confectioneries, perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, and household goods
due to its aromatic fragrance. It is also used to mask the
bitter taste of drugs in pharmaceuticals. It increases the shelf
life and nutrition of fresh fruit, skim milk, and low-fat milk.
It also has a wide range of antibacterial action. Bitter and
sweet orange oils are utilized in tea formulations as well as
in carmin and laxative preparations. D-limonene extracted
from lemon essential oil enhances immunity, counteracts
feeling depression, improves the clarity of thinking and
intention, energizes and strengthens the mind and body,
activates and removes emotional barriers, encourages skin
health, and decreases the appearance of wrinkles. Dry bitter
orange oil is used in the treatment of uterine and rectal
prolapse, diarrhea, and piles. Banana peel contains 2.2–
10.9% lipids that are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, in
particular linoleic acid and a-linolenic acid. Such fatty acids
contribute to the prevention of atherosclerosis, cancer, heart
disease, and diabetes. The Canadian black currant oil is a
good source of essential fatty acids, tocopherols, and phytosterols. Dry tomato seed contains approximately 17%
sugar, rich in linoleic and oleic acids, followed by linolenic
and palmitoleic acids. Dry tomato peels contain 2.7% oleoresin, which in turn contains 7.2% lycopene. Oleoresin may
be incorporated into the oil in quantities appropriate to the
level of enrichment desired by the lycopene. Grapes seed oil
is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid.
Passion fruit seed oil is edible and rich in unsaturated fatty
acids namely linoleic and oleic acids. Fuel has free radical
scavenging practices. Peach seed oil may also be used as
edible oil. It contains 8.0% palmitic acid, 0.3% stearic acid,
55.1% oleic acid, and 36.5% linoleic acid. This can also be
used for the manufacture of soap. Peach seed oil is richer in
oleic and linoleic acids than in tomato seed oil (Wadhwa
et al. 2015).
2.2.3 Bioadsorbents
Bio-adsorption is known to be an effective and low-cost
method since it uses low-cost and abundant biomaterials,
usually wastes to remove heavy metals and dyes from water.
It also reduces the release of biological or chemical sludge in
the atmosphere and allows for the recovery of biosorbents
capable of recovering metals. Nawirska and Kwahave suggested chokeberry and apple pomace as heavy metal
biosorbents. Mango peel was used as a biosorbent to extract
Cd and Pb from an aqueous solution. A rapid biosorption rate, i.e., reaching stabilization at 60 min, was observed
for both metals. A similar study reported the effective
removal of Cu
2+ , Ni
2+ , and Zn
2+ from constituted metal
solutions and the actual wastewater electroplating industry
using mango peel waste. Ahmed et al. examined the ability
of activated carbon derived from date pits to eliminate
contaminants such as heavy metals, phenolic compounds,
dyes, and pesticides. Date ash pits had a noticeably higher
efficiency of boron (71%) and phenol removal from contaminated drinking water relative to power plant ash and
pine ash. Peach stone particles have the ability to biosorp
mycotoxin under in vitro conditions due to their rather high
cellulose content (58.5%). The biological polymers namely
lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose in peach shells contain
numerous hydroxyl and phenolic groups that can be chemically modified to create adsorbent materials with excellent
adsorbent properties. Powdered stem and leaf of pineapple
can be used as cheaper adsorbents to adsorb methylene blue
from aqueous solution. Effective biosorbants have been
produced from pineapple fruit residues to remove toxic
metals like copper, mercury, zinc, lead, nickel, and cadmium. Some researchers reported chemical modification of
Potential Utilisation of Fruit and Vegetable Waste: An Overview
185