and enabling a more effective catalyzing of value-added
bioconversion process. The detailed characterization of the
diffusion-reaction mechanism and kinetics of immobilized
enzyme will access the essential apprehension of immobilized enzyme systems for useful applications. Furthermore,
the complex industrial conditions also have a significant
impact on the stability of enzymes and their performances. In
the case of multi-enzyme systems, the stability of the whole
system depends on sensitivity to solvents, inhibitors, and
their co-substrates of each enzyme. Rational designing of
enzymes provides a profound ability for the production of a
variety of valuable bioproducts and thus favoring the management of FVW accumulation. In addition, genetically
engineered enzymes may prove superior catalytic performance in food packaging applications. Interdisciplinary
researches in various fields namely food sciences, agricultural economics, molecular biology, biochemistry, genetic
engineering, and food regulators are required to support
enzyme-assisted applications for commercial waste stream
recovery.
2 Bioconversion of FVW
2.1 Biotechnological Products
Biotechnology has gone through a maturation process in
which the uses of biocatalysts in the food, pharmaceutical,
and chemical industries have been established for research
and development. The progresses in biotechnology have
contributed to a new era for enzymes because of their
capability to respond to a variety of reactions under different
environmental and experimental conditions. Furthermore,
enzymes are contributing a crucial role in the bio-based
economy to replace harmful chemical reactions by developing cleaner technologies for new processes and products
to the market. Enzymes support the processes in different
angles by lowering the cost of production, reducing waste,
and lowering energy for the production of green end materials. The first report of the use of enzymes in an industry
was reported in 1960 for the production of glucose syrup
through starch hydrolysis using glucosidase as a catalyst.
The major advantages of starch hydrolysis using glycosidase
were increased yields, improved purity, and simpler crystallization. Later in 1973, immobilized glucose isomerase
was implemented in the production of fructose syrup on an
industrial scale. Another advancement in biotechnology
includes the development of a variety of natural solid supports in the field of agro-industry that led to key nutrients
innovations for better crop production. Corn and sugarcane
bagasse were the most commonly studied among a series of
crop residue using these natural solid supports (Valdo et al.
2017).
2.1.1 Food Preservatives and Stabilizers
Mango seed kernel extract is a natural antioxidant used in
the food industry as preservatives. These extracts have
improved the oxidative stability of sunflower oil at ambient
temperature and also during cooking. This also improves
the qualities and stabilities of fresh and stored potato chips
and the shelf life of the ghee. Antimicrobial substrates are
effectively used as food preservatives to prolong the shelf
life of beverages where heat treatment can affect their delicate malty taste. Today, a number of FVW are used to
prepare more powerful preservatives in foods than other
natural antimicrobials. The best examples are MSK methanol extract and methanolic, ethanolic, and aqueous extracts
of pomegranate peels and papaya seed waste.
2.1.2 Bioactive Compounds
Bioactive substances have several health benefits like antihypertensive, antidiabetic, anticoagulant, antimicrobial,
anticancer, hypocholesterolemic agents, etc. The use of waste
streams for processing creates it economically feasible
(Sindhu et al. 2019). FVW are a valuable source of phytochemicals and has now been researched for the production of
dietary fibers, phenolic compounds, and other bioactive
materials. For most vegetables and fruits, only the pulp is
used, but researches have shown that large quantities of
phytochemicals and vital nutrients are available in peels,
seeds, and other parts that are not generally consumed. For
example, about 15% more phenolic compound concentration
is found in grape, lemon, orange peels, mango, avocado, and
jackfruit seeds than their fruit pulp. In general, waste should
be treated using either thermal or non-thermal methodologies
that may affect phytochemicals and nutrients (Sagar et al.
2018). Carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and their
derivatives are examples of bioactive components that can be
extracted from solid FVW. These compounds can be utilized
in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and nutraceutical industries.
Dry citrus peel waste is a source of D-limonene and a
number of flavonoids such as aseriocitrin, nariturin, naringin,
and hesperidin that are nowadays applied in the food,
pharmaceutical, and cosmetic sectors. Grape pomace is a
valuable source of polyphenols and has numerous health
benefits, including cancer treatments, anti-inflammatory, free
radical scavenging, and anti-proliferation properties. Grape
peels contain large quantities of tannins (16–27%) and other
polyphenolic compounds (2.0–6.5%), including resveratrol,
quercetin, proanthocyanidins, ellagic acid, anthocyanins, and
catechins. The polyphenol content of grape seeds is
approximately 60% more compared to whole grapes and has
high concentrations of catechins, flavanols, and epicatechins.
Apple pomace and their peels also contain flavonoids and
polyphenolic compounds. It includes hydroxycinnamates,
phloretin glycosides, quercetin glycosides, catechins, and
procyanidins. Olive pomace contains approximately 98% of
182
R. Reshmy et al.
bioconversion process. The detailed characterization of the
diffusion-reaction mechanism and kinetics of immobilized
enzyme will access the essential apprehension of immobilized enzyme systems for useful applications. Furthermore,
the complex industrial conditions also have a significant
impact on the stability of enzymes and their performances. In
the case of multi-enzyme systems, the stability of the whole
system depends on sensitivity to solvents, inhibitors, and
their co-substrates of each enzyme. Rational designing of
enzymes provides a profound ability for the production of a
variety of valuable bioproducts and thus favoring the management of FVW accumulation. In addition, genetically
engineered enzymes may prove superior catalytic performance in food packaging applications. Interdisciplinary
researches in various fields namely food sciences, agricultural economics, molecular biology, biochemistry, genetic
engineering, and food regulators are required to support
enzyme-assisted applications for commercial waste stream
recovery.
2 Bioconversion of FVW
2.1 Biotechnological Products
Biotechnology has gone through a maturation process in
which the uses of biocatalysts in the food, pharmaceutical,
and chemical industries have been established for research
and development. The progresses in biotechnology have
contributed to a new era for enzymes because of their
capability to respond to a variety of reactions under different
environmental and experimental conditions. Furthermore,
enzymes are contributing a crucial role in the bio-based
economy to replace harmful chemical reactions by developing cleaner technologies for new processes and products
to the market. Enzymes support the processes in different
angles by lowering the cost of production, reducing waste,
and lowering energy for the production of green end materials. The first report of the use of enzymes in an industry
was reported in 1960 for the production of glucose syrup
through starch hydrolysis using glucosidase as a catalyst.
The major advantages of starch hydrolysis using glycosidase
were increased yields, improved purity, and simpler crystallization. Later in 1973, immobilized glucose isomerase
was implemented in the production of fructose syrup on an
industrial scale. Another advancement in biotechnology
includes the development of a variety of natural solid supports in the field of agro-industry that led to key nutrients
innovations for better crop production. Corn and sugarcane
bagasse were the most commonly studied among a series of
crop residue using these natural solid supports (Valdo et al.
2017).
2.1.1 Food Preservatives and Stabilizers
Mango seed kernel extract is a natural antioxidant used in
the food industry as preservatives. These extracts have
improved the oxidative stability of sunflower oil at ambient
temperature and also during cooking. This also improves
the qualities and stabilities of fresh and stored potato chips
and the shelf life of the ghee. Antimicrobial substrates are
effectively used as food preservatives to prolong the shelf
life of beverages where heat treatment can affect their delicate malty taste. Today, a number of FVW are used to
prepare more powerful preservatives in foods than other
natural antimicrobials. The best examples are MSK methanol extract and methanolic, ethanolic, and aqueous extracts
of pomegranate peels and papaya seed waste.
2.1.2 Bioactive Compounds
Bioactive substances have several health benefits like antihypertensive, antidiabetic, anticoagulant, antimicrobial,
anticancer, hypocholesterolemic agents, etc. The use of waste
streams for processing creates it economically feasible
(Sindhu et al. 2019). FVW are a valuable source of phytochemicals and has now been researched for the production of
dietary fibers, phenolic compounds, and other bioactive
materials. For most vegetables and fruits, only the pulp is
used, but researches have shown that large quantities of
phytochemicals and vital nutrients are available in peels,
seeds, and other parts that are not generally consumed. For
example, about 15% more phenolic compound concentration
is found in grape, lemon, orange peels, mango, avocado, and
jackfruit seeds than their fruit pulp. In general, waste should
be treated using either thermal or non-thermal methodologies
that may affect phytochemicals and nutrients (Sagar et al.
2018). Carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and their
derivatives are examples of bioactive components that can be
extracted from solid FVW. These compounds can be utilized
in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and nutraceutical industries.
Dry citrus peel waste is a source of D-limonene and a
number of flavonoids such as aseriocitrin, nariturin, naringin,
and hesperidin that are nowadays applied in the food,
pharmaceutical, and cosmetic sectors. Grape pomace is a
valuable source of polyphenols and has numerous health
benefits, including cancer treatments, anti-inflammatory, free
radical scavenging, and anti-proliferation properties. Grape
peels contain large quantities of tannins (16–27%) and other
polyphenolic compounds (2.0–6.5%), including resveratrol,
quercetin, proanthocyanidins, ellagic acid, anthocyanins, and
catechins. The polyphenol content of grape seeds is
approximately 60% more compared to whole grapes and has
high concentrations of catechins, flavanols, and epicatechins.
Apple pomace and their peels also contain flavonoids and
polyphenolic compounds. It includes hydroxycinnamates,
phloretin glycosides, quercetin glycosides, catechins, and
procyanidins. Olive pomace contains approximately 98% of
182
R. Reshmy et al.