on neurotoxic effects of toxaphene exposure, for example, on performance and
learning (Saleh 1991; de Geus et al. 1999; Van Oostdam et al. 2005; Lamb et al.
2008). The technical Toxaphene
® and some distinct congeners were found to be
fairly oestrogenic in vitro test systems (Saleh 1991; de Geus et al. 1999; Martyniuk
et al. 2020). However, no sign for endocrine effects in vivo has been described. The
in vitro studies presented toxaphene technical and toxaphene congeners as mutagenic mediators. Nevertheless, in vivo studies did not confirm genotoxicity, so a
non-genotoxic mechanism was assumed. However, toxaphene is supposed to be a
potential carcinogen to humans (Reuber 1979; Jowa and Faust 2000; Lamb et al.
2008). Germany has recognised a legal acceptance level for toxaphene at 0.1 mg kg
–
1 weight for fish already in the 1990s (de Geus et al. 1999; Bustnes et al. 2007).
Today, chlorobornanes are regulated or banned worldwide (Ikeda et al. 2001;
Godduhn and Duffy 2003; Fuerhacker 2009). The international regulation is following the guideline of the Stockholm convention for global regulation of persistent
organic pollutants (Bustnes et al. 2007; Jennings and Li 2015; Li 2018; Fiedler et al.
2019).
In water, a number of other chiral contaminants is present differing in their
enantioselective toxicity, for example, saxitoxin and tetrodotoxin. Tetrodotoxin is
created by Pseudomonas species of bacteria and accrued in fish via the food chain
(Goto et al. 1965; Simidu et al. 1987). Likewise, saxitoxin is accrued by Gonyaulax
species, and it is more harmful to humans than tetrodotoxin as the latter is being
preferentially accrued in filter feeding shell fish serving as human food globally
(Bates and Rapoport 1975). So, the toxic effects of saxitoxin are observed in some
parts of the world, and hence, sometimes, filter feeding shell fish industries have
been disqualified (Etheridge 2010). It has also been described that the marine
environment is enriched with the (–)-enantiomer of saxitoxin (Strichartz et al.
1995; Ali et al. 2012; Blunt et al. 2015). Also, numerous other toxic chemicals,
that is, neurotoxins (homoanatoxin, anatoxin, etc.) are formed in the aquatic environment (Devlin et al. 1977; Lovin and Brooks 2020). So, sometimes, water
becomes toxic owing to the existence of these toxins and some papers have been
published on the death of livestock owing to these toxic chemicals (Skulberg 1984;
Rapala et al. 1993). Therefore, the presence of these toxic chiral contaminants may
be deadly for humans (Testai et al. 2016). Recently, several papers report on the
enantioselective toxicity of Anatoxin and Homoanatoxin analogues, and a clear
distinction between the enantiomers has been established (Xiao and Nordberg
1993; Fawell et al. 1999; van der Merwe 2015; Lovin and Brooks 2020).
10.2.7 Drugs and Pharmaceuticals
Analytical problems related to drugs and pharmaceuticals are discussed in Sect. 9.8,
while in the present chapter, the toxic aspects of these compounds will be
summarised.
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10 Chirality in Environmental Toxicity and Fate Assessments
learning (Saleh 1991; de Geus et al. 1999; Van Oostdam et al. 2005; Lamb et al.
2008). The technical Toxaphene
® and some distinct congeners were found to be
fairly oestrogenic in vitro test systems (Saleh 1991; de Geus et al. 1999; Martyniuk
et al. 2020). However, no sign for endocrine effects in vivo has been described. The
in vitro studies presented toxaphene technical and toxaphene congeners as mutagenic mediators. Nevertheless, in vivo studies did not confirm genotoxicity, so a
non-genotoxic mechanism was assumed. However, toxaphene is supposed to be a
potential carcinogen to humans (Reuber 1979; Jowa and Faust 2000; Lamb et al.
2008). Germany has recognised a legal acceptance level for toxaphene at 0.1 mg kg
–
1 weight for fish already in the 1990s (de Geus et al. 1999; Bustnes et al. 2007).
Today, chlorobornanes are regulated or banned worldwide (Ikeda et al. 2001;
Godduhn and Duffy 2003; Fuerhacker 2009). The international regulation is following the guideline of the Stockholm convention for global regulation of persistent
organic pollutants (Bustnes et al. 2007; Jennings and Li 2015; Li 2018; Fiedler et al.
2019).
In water, a number of other chiral contaminants is present differing in their
enantioselective toxicity, for example, saxitoxin and tetrodotoxin. Tetrodotoxin is
created by Pseudomonas species of bacteria and accrued in fish via the food chain
(Goto et al. 1965; Simidu et al. 1987). Likewise, saxitoxin is accrued by Gonyaulax
species, and it is more harmful to humans than tetrodotoxin as the latter is being
preferentially accrued in filter feeding shell fish serving as human food globally
(Bates and Rapoport 1975). So, the toxic effects of saxitoxin are observed in some
parts of the world, and hence, sometimes, filter feeding shell fish industries have
been disqualified (Etheridge 2010). It has also been described that the marine
environment is enriched with the (–)-enantiomer of saxitoxin (Strichartz et al.
1995; Ali et al. 2012; Blunt et al. 2015). Also, numerous other toxic chemicals,
that is, neurotoxins (homoanatoxin, anatoxin, etc.) are formed in the aquatic environment (Devlin et al. 1977; Lovin and Brooks 2020). So, sometimes, water
becomes toxic owing to the existence of these toxins and some papers have been
published on the death of livestock owing to these toxic chemicals (Skulberg 1984;
Rapala et al. 1993). Therefore, the presence of these toxic chiral contaminants may
be deadly for humans (Testai et al. 2016). Recently, several papers report on the
enantioselective toxicity of Anatoxin and Homoanatoxin analogues, and a clear
distinction between the enantiomers has been established (Xiao and Nordberg
1993; Fawell et al. 1999; van der Merwe 2015; Lovin and Brooks 2020).
10.2.7 Drugs and Pharmaceuticals
Analytical problems related to drugs and pharmaceuticals are discussed in Sect. 9.8,
while in the present chapter, the toxic aspects of these compounds will be
summarised.
288
10 Chirality in Environmental Toxicity and Fate Assessments