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endocrine- disrupting chemicals by inhaling and consuming the contaminated food
and water or beverages. Exposure happens through the air, water, earth, food, and
other daily use products. Through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact, chemical
toxins enter the human body and get absorbed in the bloodstream. One example of
EDCs exposure is pesticides that are used to kill unwanted organisms are specially
manufactured to be neurotoxic or reproductive toxicity. Invertebrates and invertebrates, the similarity of physiological mechanisms and the susceptibility of
neurological and reproductive systems, indicate that the chemical compounds produced to disturb the physiological processes of one species will also harm the other,
including humans [10]. Humans are primarily exposed to endocrine disruptors
through food and water. It became evident that human beings, particularly children,
are subjected to EDCs exposure in indoor environments such as homes, schools,
kindergartens, and offices through dust and particulates. These endocrine disruptors
are chemicals in appliances and electrical goods, fabrics, and furnishings. Waste and
recycling management were also reported as external sources of human exposure to
EDCs. Due to their hand-to-mouth behavior, toddlers and kids are highly at risk of
being exposed to EDCs through intake of dust and other polluting particulates; their
simple hand-to-mouth actions may result in significant ingestion of contaminated
substances [14–16]. Kids on average have three times higher concentrations than
adults [17]. This is likely due to exposures from breast milk and increased dust
intake and close time on the ground [18]. Furthermore, they are given specific
dietary habits, e.g., consuming more of their specific food group; these dietary patterns may increase exposure to chemicals in the products [19]. Regarding exposure
to a potential pesticide in the general populace, food is considered a major source.
However, during the application of the pesticide or the crops harvesting and storage,
pesticides can also be breathed in and ingested into the body. The latter can result in
higher exposures. Pharmaceutical exposure occurs through contaminated water and
is most common in areas with large pharmaceutical industry and inadequate water
supply monitoring [20].
E-waste (waste electrical and electronic appliances) includes several chemical
substances, some of which are known endocrine disruptors. Most e-waste has a
large variety of human-made chemicals, including lead, cadmium, and mercury, and
organic contaminants like polychlorinated biphenyls, brominated fire retardants,
and phthalates [21, 22]. The largest e-waste contributors are America, European
countries, China, and Japan; however, the developing countries have significantly
increased their output over the past few years. According to estimates, about 80% of
e-waste is sent to the developing countries to be processed for recycling [21–23].
China is the biggest receiver of e-waste, among others, are India, Pakistan, Vietnam,
and the Philippines [23–25]. Unconstrained e-waste disposal and rough recycling
processes, for example, open combustion of circuit boards and wires, metal acidstripping, plastic chipping and melting, [26] lead to the release of e-waste contaminants in the surrounding, as well as by-products of unfinished recycling procedures
such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins [27], polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and
their halogenated homologs in addition to some other endocrine-disrupting chemicals [28]. The areas close to e-waste landfill are reported to be heavily contaminated
Q. U. Ain et al.
endocrine- disrupting chemicals by inhaling and consuming the contaminated food
and water or beverages. Exposure happens through the air, water, earth, food, and
other daily use products. Through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact, chemical
toxins enter the human body and get absorbed in the bloodstream. One example of
EDCs exposure is pesticides that are used to kill unwanted organisms are specially
manufactured to be neurotoxic or reproductive toxicity. Invertebrates and invertebrates, the similarity of physiological mechanisms and the susceptibility of
neurological and reproductive systems, indicate that the chemical compounds produced to disturb the physiological processes of one species will also harm the other,
including humans [10]. Humans are primarily exposed to endocrine disruptors
through food and water. It became evident that human beings, particularly children,
are subjected to EDCs exposure in indoor environments such as homes, schools,
kindergartens, and offices through dust and particulates. These endocrine disruptors
are chemicals in appliances and electrical goods, fabrics, and furnishings. Waste and
recycling management were also reported as external sources of human exposure to
EDCs. Due to their hand-to-mouth behavior, toddlers and kids are highly at risk of
being exposed to EDCs through intake of dust and other polluting particulates; their
simple hand-to-mouth actions may result in significant ingestion of contaminated
substances [14–16]. Kids on average have three times higher concentrations than
adults [17]. This is likely due to exposures from breast milk and increased dust
intake and close time on the ground [18]. Furthermore, they are given specific
dietary habits, e.g., consuming more of their specific food group; these dietary patterns may increase exposure to chemicals in the products [19]. Regarding exposure
to a potential pesticide in the general populace, food is considered a major source.
However, during the application of the pesticide or the crops harvesting and storage,
pesticides can also be breathed in and ingested into the body. The latter can result in
higher exposures. Pharmaceutical exposure occurs through contaminated water and
is most common in areas with large pharmaceutical industry and inadequate water
supply monitoring [20].
E-waste (waste electrical and electronic appliances) includes several chemical
substances, some of which are known endocrine disruptors. Most e-waste has a
large variety of human-made chemicals, including lead, cadmium, and mercury, and
organic contaminants like polychlorinated biphenyls, brominated fire retardants,
and phthalates [21, 22]. The largest e-waste contributors are America, European
countries, China, and Japan; however, the developing countries have significantly
increased their output over the past few years. According to estimates, about 80% of
e-waste is sent to the developing countries to be processed for recycling [21–23].
China is the biggest receiver of e-waste, among others, are India, Pakistan, Vietnam,
and the Philippines [23–25]. Unconstrained e-waste disposal and rough recycling
processes, for example, open combustion of circuit boards and wires, metal acidstripping, plastic chipping and melting, [26] lead to the release of e-waste contaminants in the surrounding, as well as by-products of unfinished recycling procedures
such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins [27], polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and
their halogenated homologs in addition to some other endocrine-disrupting chemicals [28]. The areas close to e-waste landfill are reported to be heavily contaminated
Q. U. Ain et al.