88
S. H. Sadeghi and E. Sharifi Moghadam
nexus in different regions of Iran. Mirzaei et al. [55] presented the study of the energy–
food groundwater (GEF) nexus for Iranian agricultural products based on provincial
and national data sets and first-hand approximations of agricultural groundwater
exploitation. They reported that water consumption for crop production has significantly exceeded the country’s renewable water supply capacity, posing a serious
national security warning for water bankruptcy. In addition, the significant deterioration of groundwater levels in the country and the increase in energy consumption underscore the inefficient feedback links between agricultural water and energy
prices and groundwater exploitation in an inefficient agricultural sector. In the same
vein, a system dynamics model was developed by Bakhshianlamouki et al. [6] to
quantify the impact of restoration measures on the water–energy–food nexus in the
Urmia Lake Basin. They stated that a comprehensive restoration program could be
effective in improving the lake level to the recommended ecological level by 2040.
This study generally considers all parts of the nexus to assess the impact of all the
measures introduced that appear to be positive on paper, but may have unintended
consequences, such as an increase in the energy required by electric pumps. Then,
dynamic modeling of the system was studied to assess the security of water, food,
and energy resources (WFE) and nexus over a 10-year period in the Gavkhuni basin
by Ravar et al. [68]. The results showed that the most effective methods to improve
the status of the WFE system and meet the environmental demand of Gavkhuni
Wetland were the related policies recommended by the agricultural and environmental sectors. Surface water security and groundwater security under the combined
implementation of changing the product pattern and improving product efficiency
and controlling groundwater exploitation programs, about 4 and 5%, respectively,
but decreased water for food production and energy for water at respective tunes of
18% and 26%. Based on water–energy–food (WEF) Security Index reports, WEF
Index for Iran has been found to be 0.68 [94]. A linear water–energy–food nexus
optimization for planning 14 crops planted in orchard, irrigated farms, and rain-fed
farms has been formulated for the Shazand Watershed, Markazi Province (Fig. 10),
between 2006 and 2014 by Sadeghi et al. [71]. They followed five steps to perform
the study as shown in Fig. 11.
In this regard, Sadeghi et al. [71] investigated water–energy–food (WEF) nexus
framework as shown in Fig. 12. It combines three interlinked water–food components (i.e., water consumption, water mass productivity, and water economic productivity indicators), energy–food (i.e., energy consumption, energy mass productivity and energy economic productivity indicators), and energy–water (i.e., energy
consumption indicator).
Then, Sadeghi et al. [71] obtained a spatial database of the Shazand watershed.
Water–energy–food nexus index calculated for each crop. Finally, a linear optimization problem to maximize a water–energy–food nexus index (WEFNI) was introduced to get access to an optimal cropping pattern. The results pointed out that from
2009 to 2013, the maximum and minimum levels of water consumption were related
to sugarcane and bean crops. Potato and onion had consumed the maximum energy in
irrigated lands with respective amounts of 281,310 and 301,639 MJ ha
−1 during three
time spans of 2006 and 2010, and 2011 and 2014, respectively. Walnut, almond, and
S. H. Sadeghi and E. Sharifi Moghadam
nexus in different regions of Iran. Mirzaei et al. [55] presented the study of the energy–
food groundwater (GEF) nexus for Iranian agricultural products based on provincial
and national data sets and first-hand approximations of agricultural groundwater
exploitation. They reported that water consumption for crop production has significantly exceeded the country’s renewable water supply capacity, posing a serious
national security warning for water bankruptcy. In addition, the significant deterioration of groundwater levels in the country and the increase in energy consumption underscore the inefficient feedback links between agricultural water and energy
prices and groundwater exploitation in an inefficient agricultural sector. In the same
vein, a system dynamics model was developed by Bakhshianlamouki et al. [6] to
quantify the impact of restoration measures on the water–energy–food nexus in the
Urmia Lake Basin. They stated that a comprehensive restoration program could be
effective in improving the lake level to the recommended ecological level by 2040.
This study generally considers all parts of the nexus to assess the impact of all the
measures introduced that appear to be positive on paper, but may have unintended
consequences, such as an increase in the energy required by electric pumps. Then,
dynamic modeling of the system was studied to assess the security of water, food,
and energy resources (WFE) and nexus over a 10-year period in the Gavkhuni basin
by Ravar et al. [68]. The results showed that the most effective methods to improve
the status of the WFE system and meet the environmental demand of Gavkhuni
Wetland were the related policies recommended by the agricultural and environmental sectors. Surface water security and groundwater security under the combined
implementation of changing the product pattern and improving product efficiency
and controlling groundwater exploitation programs, about 4 and 5%, respectively,
but decreased water for food production and energy for water at respective tunes of
18% and 26%. Based on water–energy–food (WEF) Security Index reports, WEF
Index for Iran has been found to be 0.68 [94]. A linear water–energy–food nexus
optimization for planning 14 crops planted in orchard, irrigated farms, and rain-fed
farms has been formulated for the Shazand Watershed, Markazi Province (Fig. 10),
between 2006 and 2014 by Sadeghi et al. [71]. They followed five steps to perform
the study as shown in Fig. 11.
In this regard, Sadeghi et al. [71] investigated water–energy–food (WEF) nexus
framework as shown in Fig. 12. It combines three interlinked water–food components (i.e., water consumption, water mass productivity, and water economic productivity indicators), energy–food (i.e., energy consumption, energy mass productivity and energy economic productivity indicators), and energy–water (i.e., energy
consumption indicator).
Then, Sadeghi et al. [71] obtained a spatial database of the Shazand watershed.
Water–energy–food nexus index calculated for each crop. Finally, a linear optimization problem to maximize a water–energy–food nexus index (WEFNI) was introduced to get access to an optimal cropping pattern. The results pointed out that from
2009 to 2013, the maximum and minimum levels of water consumption were related
to sugarcane and bean crops. Potato and onion had consumed the maximum energy in
irrigated lands with respective amounts of 281,310 and 301,639 MJ ha
−1 during three
time spans of 2006 and 2010, and 2011 and 2014, respectively. Walnut, almond, and