35
dence that warming of the climate will alter the known patterns of animal, plant and human diseases,
and that such will affect ecological interactions, competition, predator-prey relationships, host parasite interactions, herbivory and pollination (Hellmann, Byers, Bierwagen, & Dukes, 2008; Harvell
et al., 2002).
Actions are now starting to focus upon considerations of adaptation, in the form of developing
adaptation policies to address the above- mentioned impacts on the built environment as well as to
ecological systems and biodiversity loss. However, Campbell et al. (2009) identified that adaptation
strategies tend to focus on technological, structural, social, and economic developments. The linkages
between biodiversity and adaptation are often missed and the identification of vulnerability of systems
(including human and ecological), function of character, magnitude, and sensitivity and adaptive
capacity are not considered in a holistic sense (Campbell et al., 2009). In a holistic sense, when we
take into account The Whole [1], adaptation needs to consider the vulnerability issues as interconnected with both ecological and human environments.
In particular, the vulnerability of coastal environments is high. These landscapes are, in Australia
and in various other parts across the world, directly exposed to rapid changes in a dynamic active
environment where land meets ocean, and usually are intervened upon by human-based activities.
Recent studies have shown a negative impact of many adaptation strategies on coastal ecological systems, especially in the case of ‘hard defences built to prevent coastal and inland flooding’ (Campbell
et al., 2009). These hard defence systems result in so-called ‘maladaptation’ in the long term, because
the ecological attributes that regulate the ecosystems are disturbed. It is thus important to understand
the interconnectivity of humans as well as natural systems and the patterns of climate and nature,
especially considering the tendency of humans to settle along the coast, resulting in the vulnerability
of both.
3.5 Climate Change and Coastal Settlements
Human urban civilisation historically developed in fertile river valleys where fresh water was available for irrigation. Subsequently more and more settlements developed more densely where the rivers
meet the sea, and resulted in most of the world’s cities being located at river mouths with ports to be
enable trade of their goods. The tendency to live close to rivers and the sea opens up risks of impact
to these settlements due to the dynamics of the environment. It is estimated that in the United Kingdom
about six million people (10% of the population, calculated in 2012) are at risk due to flooding from
rivers and the sea. In addition, about 3000 kilometres of the UK coastline is eroding; floods and
coastal erosion are already a serious risk in the UK, and these risks are projected to rapidly increase
due to climate change (Ramsbottom, Sayers, & Panzeri, 2012). Similarly, the risks are high in other
parts of the world, for example in the United States of America, where development along its coasts
are particularly vulnerable to hurricanes and other kinds of severe weather incidents. It is now accepted
and evidenced in various literatures including government policies internationally that there is a concern about the potential impacts of climate change in coastal areas (Macintosh, 2012).
In Australia, significant assets on the coast are already exposed, and of the estimated 711,000 existing homes in coastal zones up to 35% are at risk of inundation under a plausible sea level rise scenario
of between 0.8 and 1.1 metres, and are located within a zone of less than 6 metres above sea level.
Significant built infrastructure is situated in vulnerable locations (Gurran, Squire, & Blakely, 2011).
As was recorded in Visions of the Surf Coast - Changing Landscapes Under Future Climate Effects
(2013), most of the public infrastructure along the Victorian coast between Torquay and Lorne will be
detrimentally affected by a sea level rise of 0.8 metres, and at the upper climate change impact scenario of 1.4 metres the damage will be inconceivable. Additional to public infrastructure, low-lying
3.5 Climate Change and Coastal Settlements
dence that warming of the climate will alter the known patterns of animal, plant and human diseases,
and that such will affect ecological interactions, competition, predator-prey relationships, host parasite interactions, herbivory and pollination (Hellmann, Byers, Bierwagen, & Dukes, 2008; Harvell
et al., 2002).
Actions are now starting to focus upon considerations of adaptation, in the form of developing
adaptation policies to address the above- mentioned impacts on the built environment as well as to
ecological systems and biodiversity loss. However, Campbell et al. (2009) identified that adaptation
strategies tend to focus on technological, structural, social, and economic developments. The linkages
between biodiversity and adaptation are often missed and the identification of vulnerability of systems
(including human and ecological), function of character, magnitude, and sensitivity and adaptive
capacity are not considered in a holistic sense (Campbell et al., 2009). In a holistic sense, when we
take into account The Whole [1], adaptation needs to consider the vulnerability issues as interconnected with both ecological and human environments.
In particular, the vulnerability of coastal environments is high. These landscapes are, in Australia
and in various other parts across the world, directly exposed to rapid changes in a dynamic active
environment where land meets ocean, and usually are intervened upon by human-based activities.
Recent studies have shown a negative impact of many adaptation strategies on coastal ecological systems, especially in the case of ‘hard defences built to prevent coastal and inland flooding’ (Campbell
et al., 2009). These hard defence systems result in so-called ‘maladaptation’ in the long term, because
the ecological attributes that regulate the ecosystems are disturbed. It is thus important to understand
the interconnectivity of humans as well as natural systems and the patterns of climate and nature,
especially considering the tendency of humans to settle along the coast, resulting in the vulnerability
of both.
3.5 Climate Change and Coastal Settlements
Human urban civilisation historically developed in fertile river valleys where fresh water was available for irrigation. Subsequently more and more settlements developed more densely where the rivers
meet the sea, and resulted in most of the world’s cities being located at river mouths with ports to be
enable trade of their goods. The tendency to live close to rivers and the sea opens up risks of impact
to these settlements due to the dynamics of the environment. It is estimated that in the United Kingdom
about six million people (10% of the population, calculated in 2012) are at risk due to flooding from
rivers and the sea. In addition, about 3000 kilometres of the UK coastline is eroding; floods and
coastal erosion are already a serious risk in the UK, and these risks are projected to rapidly increase
due to climate change (Ramsbottom, Sayers, & Panzeri, 2012). Similarly, the risks are high in other
parts of the world, for example in the United States of America, where development along its coasts
are particularly vulnerable to hurricanes and other kinds of severe weather incidents. It is now accepted
and evidenced in various literatures including government policies internationally that there is a concern about the potential impacts of climate change in coastal areas (Macintosh, 2012).
In Australia, significant assets on the coast are already exposed, and of the estimated 711,000 existing homes in coastal zones up to 35% are at risk of inundation under a plausible sea level rise scenario
of between 0.8 and 1.1 metres, and are located within a zone of less than 6 metres above sea level.
Significant built infrastructure is situated in vulnerable locations (Gurran, Squire, & Blakely, 2011).
As was recorded in Visions of the Surf Coast - Changing Landscapes Under Future Climate Effects
(2013), most of the public infrastructure along the Victorian coast between Torquay and Lorne will be
detrimentally affected by a sea level rise of 0.8 metres, and at the upper climate change impact scenario of 1.4 metres the damage will be inconceivable. Additional to public infrastructure, low-lying
3.5 Climate Change and Coastal Settlements