and the former productivity recover? Is recovery under the
pastoral management sufficiently rapid that erosion is not of
significant concern for sustainable production in this landscape? The effect of soil slip erosion on pasture production
in soft rock hill country, at Te Whanga in the Wairarapa, was
investigated by Keith Vincent and Derek Milne in 1990 and
followed up 20 years later by Brenda Rosser and Craig
Ross. The soils on soil slip scars, initiated during storms in
1941, 1961, and 1977, were compared with soils on adjacent
uneroded sites to evaluate rates of recovery. The work
showed that production had returned to about 80% of
uneroded levels 70 years after the landslide event, prompting the conclusion that it is unlikely that pasture production
on the slip scars will return to pre-erosion production levels
in human time scales. This finding has implications for
sustainability. The slow recovery was attributed to the loss
of topsoil, well as the immediately underlying subsoil,
meaning that recovery had to occur within the remaining
deeper, poorly structured, less weathered, and more compacted, parent materials.
In plantation forestry on hilly to steepland, including Raw
and Recent Soils, north of Napier, Marie Heaphy and others
showed that soil total nitrogen, total carbon, total phosphorus, and organic matter were lower, and tree volume was
10% lower, in eroded plots than non-eroded plots. Based on
an assessment of log quality, trees in the eroded plots were
forecast to produce 16% less volume from high-quality
pruned logs than trees in non-eroded plots. In contrast, Mark
Smale, Malcolm McLeod and others reported no difference
in growth rates of kanuka/manuka (Kunzia ericoides/Leptospermum scoparium) stands on landslide scars compared
to stands on uneroded areas in the East Cape region. There is
potential for more work to be undertaken to determine the
length of time needed to develop from a Raw to a Recent
Soil in a range of different soil parent materials and climates.
Further Reading
Almond PC, Tonkin PJ (1999) Pedogenesis by upbuilding in an
extreme leaching and weathering environment, and slow loess
accretion, south Westland, New Zealand. Geoderma 92:1–36
Beecroft FG, Hewitt AE, Smith SM (1991) Soils of the Taieri Plain,
northeast Taieri River, Otago, New Zealand. DSIR Land Resour Sci
Rep 17:65p
Blaschke PM, Trustrum NA, DeRose RC (1992) Ecosystem processes
and sustainable land use in New Zealand steeplands. Agr Ecosyst
Environ 41:153–178
Briggs RM, Lowe DJ, Esler WR et al (2006) Geology of the Maketu
area, Bay of Plenty, North Island, New Zealand—Sheet V14 1:50
000. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Waikato,
Occasional Report 26. 44 p + map
Chittenden ET, Hodgson L, Dodson KH (1966) Soils and agriculture of
Waimea County. NZ, NZ Soil Bureau Bull 30. 66 p
Crozier MJ (2005) Multiple-occurrence regional landslide events in
New Zealand: hazard management issues. Landslides 2:247–256
Crozier MJ, Pillans BJ (1991) Geomorphic events and landform
response in south-eastern Taranaki, New Zealand. Catena 18:471–
487
Crozier MJ, Gage M, Pettinga JR et al (1992) The stability of hillslopes.
In: Soons JM, Selby MJ (eds) Landforms of New Zealand, 2nd edn.
Longman Paul, Auckland pp 63–90
Fransen P, Brownlie R (1995) Historical slip erosion in catchments
underpasture and radiata pine forest, Hawke's Bay hill country. New
Zealand Forestry (November), pp 9–33
Glade T (1998) Establishing the frequency and magnitude of
landslide-triggering rainstorm events in New Zealand. Environ
Geol 35(2–3):160–174
Hartemink AE, Zhang Y, Bockheim JG et al (2020) Soil horizon
variation: a review. Advances in Agronomy 160:125-185
Heaphy MJ, Lowe DJ, Palmer DJ et al (2014) Assessing drivers of
plantation forest productivity on eroded and non-eroded soils in
hilly land, eastern North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand J For
Sci 44:24 (10p)
Hicks M, Shankar U, McKerchar AI et al (2011) Suspended sediment
yields from New Zealand rivers. J Hydrol (NZ) 50(1):81–142
Lambert MG, Trustrum NA, Costall DA (1984) Effect of soil slip
erosion on seasonally dry Wairarapa hill pastures. New Zealand J
Agric Res 27:57–64
Lynn IH, Manderson AK, Page MJ et al (2009) Land use capability
survey handbook, 3rd edn. AgResearch/Landcare Research/GNS
Science, 163 p
Marsaglia KM, DeVaughn AM, James DE (2010) Provenance of fluvial
terrace sediments within the Waipaoa sedimentary system and their
importance to New Zealand source-to-sink studies. Mar Geol
270:84–93
Mazengarb C, Speden IG (compilers) (2000) Geology of the Raukumara area. Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences 1:250 000
geological map 6 (1 sheet + 60 p)
Page MJ, Reid LM, Lynn IH (1999) Sediment production from
Cyclone Bola landslides, Waipaoa catchment. J Hydrol NZ 38
(2):289–308
Pillans BJ, Pullar WA, Selby MJ et al (1992) The age and development
of the New Zealand landscape. In: Soons JM, Selby MJ (eds) Landforms of New Zealand, 2nd edn. Longman Paul, Auckland, pp 31–
62
Pullar WA 1962. Soils and agriculture of Gisborne Plains. NZ Soil
Bureau Bull 20. 90 p
Pullar WA (1985) Soils and land use of Rangitaiki Plains, North Island,
New Zealand. New Zealand Soil Survey Report 86 (75 p + map 1:
31680)
Pullar WA, Penhale HR (1970) Periods of recent infilling of the
Gisborne Plains basin. Associated marker beds and changes in
shoreline. NZ J Sci 13:410–434
Pullar WA, Selby MJ (1971) Coastal progradation of Rangitaiki Plains,
New Zealand. N.Z J Sci 14:419–434
Pullar WA, Hewitt SR, Heine JC (1978) Soils and land use of
Whakatane Borough and environs, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand.
New Zealand Soil Bureau Bulletin 38. 100 p + multiple maps
Rijkse WC (ed) (1985) Soil groups of New Zealand, Part 8. New
Zealand Society of Soil Science, Recent Soils, 44 p
Smale MC, McLeod M, Smale PN (1997) Vegetation and soil recovery
on shallow landslide scars in Tertiary hill country, East Cape region,
New Zealand. NZ J Ecol 21(1):31–41
14.7 Use and Management of Recent Soils
229
pastoral management sufficiently rapid that erosion is not of
significant concern for sustainable production in this landscape? The effect of soil slip erosion on pasture production
in soft rock hill country, at Te Whanga in the Wairarapa, was
investigated by Keith Vincent and Derek Milne in 1990 and
followed up 20 years later by Brenda Rosser and Craig
Ross. The soils on soil slip scars, initiated during storms in
1941, 1961, and 1977, were compared with soils on adjacent
uneroded sites to evaluate rates of recovery. The work
showed that production had returned to about 80% of
uneroded levels 70 years after the landslide event, prompting the conclusion that it is unlikely that pasture production
on the slip scars will return to pre-erosion production levels
in human time scales. This finding has implications for
sustainability. The slow recovery was attributed to the loss
of topsoil, well as the immediately underlying subsoil,
meaning that recovery had to occur within the remaining
deeper, poorly structured, less weathered, and more compacted, parent materials.
In plantation forestry on hilly to steepland, including Raw
and Recent Soils, north of Napier, Marie Heaphy and others
showed that soil total nitrogen, total carbon, total phosphorus, and organic matter were lower, and tree volume was
10% lower, in eroded plots than non-eroded plots. Based on
an assessment of log quality, trees in the eroded plots were
forecast to produce 16% less volume from high-quality
pruned logs than trees in non-eroded plots. In contrast, Mark
Smale, Malcolm McLeod and others reported no difference
in growth rates of kanuka/manuka (Kunzia ericoides/Leptospermum scoparium) stands on landslide scars compared
to stands on uneroded areas in the East Cape region. There is
potential for more work to be undertaken to determine the
length of time needed to develop from a Raw to a Recent
Soil in a range of different soil parent materials and climates.
Further Reading
Almond PC, Tonkin PJ (1999) Pedogenesis by upbuilding in an
extreme leaching and weathering environment, and slow loess
accretion, south Westland, New Zealand. Geoderma 92:1–36
Beecroft FG, Hewitt AE, Smith SM (1991) Soils of the Taieri Plain,
northeast Taieri River, Otago, New Zealand. DSIR Land Resour Sci
Rep 17:65p
Blaschke PM, Trustrum NA, DeRose RC (1992) Ecosystem processes
and sustainable land use in New Zealand steeplands. Agr Ecosyst
Environ 41:153–178
Briggs RM, Lowe DJ, Esler WR et al (2006) Geology of the Maketu
area, Bay of Plenty, North Island, New Zealand—Sheet V14 1:50
000. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Waikato,
Occasional Report 26. 44 p + map
Chittenden ET, Hodgson L, Dodson KH (1966) Soils and agriculture of
Waimea County. NZ, NZ Soil Bureau Bull 30. 66 p
Crozier MJ (2005) Multiple-occurrence regional landslide events in
New Zealand: hazard management issues. Landslides 2:247–256
Crozier MJ, Pillans BJ (1991) Geomorphic events and landform
response in south-eastern Taranaki, New Zealand. Catena 18:471–
487
Crozier MJ, Gage M, Pettinga JR et al (1992) The stability of hillslopes.
In: Soons JM, Selby MJ (eds) Landforms of New Zealand, 2nd edn.
Longman Paul, Auckland pp 63–90
Fransen P, Brownlie R (1995) Historical slip erosion in catchments
underpasture and radiata pine forest, Hawke's Bay hill country. New
Zealand Forestry (November), pp 9–33
Glade T (1998) Establishing the frequency and magnitude of
landslide-triggering rainstorm events in New Zealand. Environ
Geol 35(2–3):160–174
Hartemink AE, Zhang Y, Bockheim JG et al (2020) Soil horizon
variation: a review. Advances in Agronomy 160:125-185
Heaphy MJ, Lowe DJ, Palmer DJ et al (2014) Assessing drivers of
plantation forest productivity on eroded and non-eroded soils in
hilly land, eastern North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand J For
Sci 44:24 (10p)
Hicks M, Shankar U, McKerchar AI et al (2011) Suspended sediment
yields from New Zealand rivers. J Hydrol (NZ) 50(1):81–142
Lambert MG, Trustrum NA, Costall DA (1984) Effect of soil slip
erosion on seasonally dry Wairarapa hill pastures. New Zealand J
Agric Res 27:57–64
Lynn IH, Manderson AK, Page MJ et al (2009) Land use capability
survey handbook, 3rd edn. AgResearch/Landcare Research/GNS
Science, 163 p
Marsaglia KM, DeVaughn AM, James DE (2010) Provenance of fluvial
terrace sediments within the Waipaoa sedimentary system and their
importance to New Zealand source-to-sink studies. Mar Geol
270:84–93
Mazengarb C, Speden IG (compilers) (2000) Geology of the Raukumara area. Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences 1:250 000
geological map 6 (1 sheet + 60 p)
Page MJ, Reid LM, Lynn IH (1999) Sediment production from
Cyclone Bola landslides, Waipaoa catchment. J Hydrol NZ 38
(2):289–308
Pillans BJ, Pullar WA, Selby MJ et al (1992) The age and development
of the New Zealand landscape. In: Soons JM, Selby MJ (eds) Landforms of New Zealand, 2nd edn. Longman Paul, Auckland, pp 31–
62
Pullar WA 1962. Soils and agriculture of Gisborne Plains. NZ Soil
Bureau Bull 20. 90 p
Pullar WA (1985) Soils and land use of Rangitaiki Plains, North Island,
New Zealand. New Zealand Soil Survey Report 86 (75 p + map 1:
31680)
Pullar WA, Penhale HR (1970) Periods of recent infilling of the
Gisborne Plains basin. Associated marker beds and changes in
shoreline. NZ J Sci 13:410–434
Pullar WA, Selby MJ (1971) Coastal progradation of Rangitaiki Plains,
New Zealand. N.Z J Sci 14:419–434
Pullar WA, Hewitt SR, Heine JC (1978) Soils and land use of
Whakatane Borough and environs, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand.
New Zealand Soil Bureau Bulletin 38. 100 p + multiple maps
Rijkse WC (ed) (1985) Soil groups of New Zealand, Part 8. New
Zealand Society of Soil Science, Recent Soils, 44 p
Smale MC, McLeod M, Smale PN (1997) Vegetation and soil recovery
on shallow landslide scars in Tertiary hill country, East Cape region,
New Zealand. NZ J Ecol 21(1):31–41
14.7 Use and Management of Recent Soils
229