Ruapehu, and Mt Tongariro where generally they are protected as natural features and natural processes are allowed to
play out. There is an issue that such areas are fragile and easily
damaged by foot traffic, particularly on the popular Tongariro
Alpine Crossing. Efforts have been made to restrict people to
formed paths and in some areas wooden walkways have been
constructed to prevent damage to the fragile soils.
Orthic Raw Soils often occur on slopes where material
has been removed or deposited as a result of hillslope mass
movement. Such sites are particularly common on the soft
rock Tertiary mudstone (papa) that underlies the steep hilly
terrain on the east coast of the North Island. A range of
measures have been shown to help prevent such erosion
events, including spaced tree planting and gully dams.
Where accelerated erosion has occurred, spreading seed and
fertiliser speeds up re-establishment of vegetation cover,
thereby helping rehabilitate such sites. Work in the Wairarapa hill country has shown that pasture production on
landslide scars was about 20% lower than on adjacent
non-eroded sites 80 years after the erosion event. Forest
productivity has been shown to be about 10% lower on
eroded, than non-eroded, areas in east coast hill country.
Further Reading
Basher LR (2013) Erosion processes and their control in New Zealand.
In: Dymond JR (ed) Ecosystem services in New Zealand—
conditions and trends. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, New
Zealand, pp 363–374
Briggs RM, Laurent JG, Hume et al (2009) Provenance of black sands
on the west coast, North Island, New Zealand. Proceedings,
AusIMM New Zealand Branch Annual Conference, Queenstown
(25-28 August), pp 41-50
Certini G, Ugolini FC (2013) An updated, expanded, universal
definition of soil. Geoderma 192:378–379
Clarkson BD, Clarkson BR, Juvik JO (2015) Pattern and process of
vegetation change (succession) on two northern New Zealand
island volcanoes. Surtsey Res 13:45–48
Clement AJH, Sloss CR, Fuller IC (2010) Late Quaternary geomorphology of the Manawatu coastal plain, North Island, New Zealand.
Quatern Int 221:36–45
Cody AD (2003) Geology, history and stratigraphy of hydrothermal
eruptions in the Rotorua Geothermal Field. Unpublished MSc
thesis, University of Waikato, Hamilton
Cowie JD (1967) Soils of the Manawatu—Rangitikei sand country.
Soil Bureau Bulletin 29. New Zealand Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research, 58 p
Cowie JD (1968) Pedology of soils from wind-blown sand in the
Manawatu district. NZ J Sci 11:459–487
Cowie JD, Rijkse WC (1977) Soils of Manawatu county, North Island.
New Zealand, NZ Soil Survey Report 30, 34 p
Crozier MJ (2005) Multiple-occurrence regional landslide events in
New Zealand: hazard management issues. Landslides 2:247–256
Davies TRH (2017) Mountain process geomorphology: conceptual
progress in the Southern Alps. In: Shulmeister J (ed) Landscape and
Quaternary
environmental
change
in
New
Zealand,
Springer/Atlantis Press, pp 205–233
de Ronde CEJ, Fornarib DJ, Ferrinic VL et al (2016) The Pink and
White terraces of Lake Rotomahana: what was their fate after the
1886 Tarawera Rift eruption? J Volcanol Geoth Res 314:126–141
Glade T (1998) Establishing the frequency and magnitude of
landslide-triggering rainstorm events in New Zealand. Environ
Geol 35:160–174
Grab SW, Dickenson KJM, Mark AF et al (2008) Ploughing boulders
on the Rock and Pillar Range, south-central New Zealand: their
geomorphology and alpine plant associations. J Roy Soc New
Zealand 38(1):51–70
Hartemink AE (2016) The definition of soil since the early 1800s. Adv
Agron 137:73–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2015.12.001
Heaphy MJ, Lowe DJ, Palmer DJ et al (2014) Assessing drivers of
plantation forest productivity on eroded and non-eroded soils in
hilly land, eastern North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand J For
Sci44:24 (10p)
Hewitt AE (2010) New Zealand Soil Classification 3rd edition,
Landcare Research Science Series No.1, Manaaki Whenua Press,
Lincoln, New Zealand, 136p
Hicks M, Shankar U, McKerchar AI et al (2011) Suspended sediment
yields from New Zealand rivers. J Hydrol (NZ) 50(1):81–142
Ling LL, Schneider T, Peoples AJ et al (2015) A new antibiotic kills
pathogens without detectable resistance. Nature 517:455–459
Lowe DJ, Shane PAR, de Lange PJ et al (2017) Rangitoto Island field
trip, Auckland (FT3). Geosci Soc New Zealand Miscellaneous Publ
147B:56p
Lynn IH, Manderson AK, Page MJ et al (2009) Land use capability
survey handbook, 3rd edn. AgResearch/Landcare Research/GNS
Science, 163 p
Metson AJ, Janica GE, Cox TE et al (1977) The problem of
acid-sulphate soils with examples from North Auckland, New
Zealand. N.Z. J Sci 20:371–394
Pons LJ, Zonneveld IS (1965) Soil ripening and soil classification.
Initial soil formation in alluvial deposits and a classification of the
resulting soils. International Institute for land reclamation and
improvement. Publication 13. H Veenman and Zonnen NV,
Wageningin, The Netherlands, 128 p
Roberts RC, McConchie J (2017) Preliminary assessment of the acid
sulphate soils hazard in the Auckland region. In: Alexander GJ,
Chin CY (eds) Proceedings of the 20th NZGS Geotechnical
Symposium, Napier
Sattler K, Anderson B, Macintosh A et al (2016) Estimating permafrost
distribution in the Maritime Southern Alps, New Zealand, based on
climatic conditions at rock glacier sites. Front Earth Sci 4:4. https://
doi.org/10.3389/feart.2016.00004
Shepherd MJ, Lees CM (1987) Holocene alluviation and transgressive
dune activity in the lower Manawatu Valley, New Zealand. NZ J
Geol Geophys 30:175–187
Soil Survey Staff (2014) Keys to Soil Taxonomy twelfth edition. USDA
Natural Resources Conservation Service. 360p https://www.nrcs.
usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=stelprdb
1252094&ext=pdf
Townsend DB, Leonard GS, Conway CE et al (compilers)
(2017) Geology of the Tongariro National Park area, New
Zealand. GNS Science geological map 4. 1 sheet + 109 p, scale
1:60,000, GNS Science, Lower Hutt
Vucetich CG, Wells N (1978) Soils, agriculture, and forestry of
Waiotapu region, central North Island, New Zealand. NZ Soil Bur
Bull 31:100p
Williams PW (2017) New Zealand landscape—behind the scene.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 470 p
World Reference Base (2015) https://www.fao.org/3/i3794en/I3794en.
pdf. Accessed 2 March 2020
214
13 Raw Soils
play out. There is an issue that such areas are fragile and easily
damaged by foot traffic, particularly on the popular Tongariro
Alpine Crossing. Efforts have been made to restrict people to
formed paths and in some areas wooden walkways have been
constructed to prevent damage to the fragile soils.
Orthic Raw Soils often occur on slopes where material
has been removed or deposited as a result of hillslope mass
movement. Such sites are particularly common on the soft
rock Tertiary mudstone (papa) that underlies the steep hilly
terrain on the east coast of the North Island. A range of
measures have been shown to help prevent such erosion
events, including spaced tree planting and gully dams.
Where accelerated erosion has occurred, spreading seed and
fertiliser speeds up re-establishment of vegetation cover,
thereby helping rehabilitate such sites. Work in the Wairarapa hill country has shown that pasture production on
landslide scars was about 20% lower than on adjacent
non-eroded sites 80 years after the erosion event. Forest
productivity has been shown to be about 10% lower on
eroded, than non-eroded, areas in east coast hill country.
Further Reading
Basher LR (2013) Erosion processes and their control in New Zealand.
In: Dymond JR (ed) Ecosystem services in New Zealand—
conditions and trends. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, New
Zealand, pp 363–374
Briggs RM, Laurent JG, Hume et al (2009) Provenance of black sands
on the west coast, North Island, New Zealand. Proceedings,
AusIMM New Zealand Branch Annual Conference, Queenstown
(25-28 August), pp 41-50
Certini G, Ugolini FC (2013) An updated, expanded, universal
definition of soil. Geoderma 192:378–379
Clarkson BD, Clarkson BR, Juvik JO (2015) Pattern and process of
vegetation change (succession) on two northern New Zealand
island volcanoes. Surtsey Res 13:45–48
Clement AJH, Sloss CR, Fuller IC (2010) Late Quaternary geomorphology of the Manawatu coastal plain, North Island, New Zealand.
Quatern Int 221:36–45
Cody AD (2003) Geology, history and stratigraphy of hydrothermal
eruptions in the Rotorua Geothermal Field. Unpublished MSc
thesis, University of Waikato, Hamilton
Cowie JD (1967) Soils of the Manawatu—Rangitikei sand country.
Soil Bureau Bulletin 29. New Zealand Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research, 58 p
Cowie JD (1968) Pedology of soils from wind-blown sand in the
Manawatu district. NZ J Sci 11:459–487
Cowie JD, Rijkse WC (1977) Soils of Manawatu county, North Island.
New Zealand, NZ Soil Survey Report 30, 34 p
Crozier MJ (2005) Multiple-occurrence regional landslide events in
New Zealand: hazard management issues. Landslides 2:247–256
Davies TRH (2017) Mountain process geomorphology: conceptual
progress in the Southern Alps. In: Shulmeister J (ed) Landscape and
Quaternary
environmental
change
in
New
Zealand,
Springer/Atlantis Press, pp 205–233
de Ronde CEJ, Fornarib DJ, Ferrinic VL et al (2016) The Pink and
White terraces of Lake Rotomahana: what was their fate after the
1886 Tarawera Rift eruption? J Volcanol Geoth Res 314:126–141
Glade T (1998) Establishing the frequency and magnitude of
landslide-triggering rainstorm events in New Zealand. Environ
Geol 35:160–174
Grab SW, Dickenson KJM, Mark AF et al (2008) Ploughing boulders
on the Rock and Pillar Range, south-central New Zealand: their
geomorphology and alpine plant associations. J Roy Soc New
Zealand 38(1):51–70
Hartemink AE (2016) The definition of soil since the early 1800s. Adv
Agron 137:73–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2015.12.001
Heaphy MJ, Lowe DJ, Palmer DJ et al (2014) Assessing drivers of
plantation forest productivity on eroded and non-eroded soils in
hilly land, eastern North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand J For
Sci44:24 (10p)
Hewitt AE (2010) New Zealand Soil Classification 3rd edition,
Landcare Research Science Series No.1, Manaaki Whenua Press,
Lincoln, New Zealand, 136p
Hicks M, Shankar U, McKerchar AI et al (2011) Suspended sediment
yields from New Zealand rivers. J Hydrol (NZ) 50(1):81–142
Ling LL, Schneider T, Peoples AJ et al (2015) A new antibiotic kills
pathogens without detectable resistance. Nature 517:455–459
Lowe DJ, Shane PAR, de Lange PJ et al (2017) Rangitoto Island field
trip, Auckland (FT3). Geosci Soc New Zealand Miscellaneous Publ
147B:56p
Lynn IH, Manderson AK, Page MJ et al (2009) Land use capability
survey handbook, 3rd edn. AgResearch/Landcare Research/GNS
Science, 163 p
Metson AJ, Janica GE, Cox TE et al (1977) The problem of
acid-sulphate soils with examples from North Auckland, New
Zealand. N.Z. J Sci 20:371–394
Pons LJ, Zonneveld IS (1965) Soil ripening and soil classification.
Initial soil formation in alluvial deposits and a classification of the
resulting soils. International Institute for land reclamation and
improvement. Publication 13. H Veenman and Zonnen NV,
Wageningin, The Netherlands, 128 p
Roberts RC, McConchie J (2017) Preliminary assessment of the acid
sulphate soils hazard in the Auckland region. In: Alexander GJ,
Chin CY (eds) Proceedings of the 20th NZGS Geotechnical
Symposium, Napier
Sattler K, Anderson B, Macintosh A et al (2016) Estimating permafrost
distribution in the Maritime Southern Alps, New Zealand, based on
climatic conditions at rock glacier sites. Front Earth Sci 4:4. https://
doi.org/10.3389/feart.2016.00004
Shepherd MJ, Lees CM (1987) Holocene alluviation and transgressive
dune activity in the lower Manawatu Valley, New Zealand. NZ J
Geol Geophys 30:175–187
Soil Survey Staff (2014) Keys to Soil Taxonomy twelfth edition. USDA
Natural Resources Conservation Service. 360p https://www.nrcs.
usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=stelprdb
1252094&ext=pdf
Townsend DB, Leonard GS, Conway CE et al (compilers)
(2017) Geology of the Tongariro National Park area, New
Zealand. GNS Science geological map 4. 1 sheet + 109 p, scale
1:60,000, GNS Science, Lower Hutt
Vucetich CG, Wells N (1978) Soils, agriculture, and forestry of
Waiotapu region, central North Island, New Zealand. NZ Soil Bur
Bull 31:100p
Williams PW (2017) New Zealand landscape—behind the scene.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 470 p
World Reference Base (2015) https://www.fao.org/3/i3794en/I3794en.
pdf. Accessed 2 March 2020
214
13 Raw Soils