inhibitors, including antibiotics are treated, they are enforced to pass through the
cell membrane, and later accumulate at a higher level to inhibit protein synthesis
(Levy 1992; Paulsen et al. 1996; Munita and Arias 2016; Shriram et al. 2018).
A wide range of pathogenic bacterial species, including Staphylococcus aureus,
Acinetobacter baumannii, P. aeruginosa, in addition to fungal species, Candida
albicans show antibiotic resistance through this mechanism. Efflux pumps can
eliminate the antibiotic agents from bacterial strains, for example, trimethoprim and
fluoroquinolones resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Further, making use of
efflux pump inhibitors along with antibacterial drugs could be a better option of
treatment in overcoming the threatening microbial infections due to multi-drug
resistant microbes (Blair et al. 2015; Munita and Arias 2016; Khameneh et al.
2019). The structural modifications of porins (protein channels) can control the
diffusion of intracellular molecules, including antibiotics. Through this way, few
bacterial strains prevent the antibiotics influx by altering the structure of porins, and
also membrane permeability to exhibit resistance mechanism. This mechanism of
antimicrobial resistance is mediated by several microbes, including gram-negative
pathogenic Pseudomonas spp. and Acinetobacter spp. (De et al. 2001; Vila et al.
2007; Pages et al. 2008). Bacterial species belonging to Enterobacteriaceae can
degrade the b-lactam antibiotics (cephalosporins, penicillins, and carbapenems)
(Olsen et al. 2015; Blair et al. 2015). P. aeruginosa produces modifying enzymes
that destroy or alter the structure of antibiotics, including chloramphenicol and
fosfomycin (Munita and Arias 2016; Khameneh et al. 2019). In addition, a study
carried out with a-Bisabolol isolated from Matricaria chamomilla L in single and
complex form with b-Cyclodextrin as TetK and NorA efflux pump inhibitors
in Staphylococcus aureus strains. a-Bisabolol potentiated the action of tetracycline
and reduced the MIC of norfloxacin to a clinically relevant concentration. The
complexed substance showed synergism; however, the effect of the isolated
a-Bisabolol was superior to the complex. These results indicate a-Bisabolol is a
potential substance to be used as an efflux pump inhibitor (Cruz et al. 2020).
The continued use of medicinal plants and the empirical knowledge of the
communities about them has aroused interest in pharmacological research related to
plants. Many botanical families are being studied with the purpose of finding
biochemical substances in these plants against bacteria and fungi that are resistant to
multiple drugs that are currently available in the market. The combination of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants, together with technology and science
has enabled countless advances in research, aimed at the search for new alternatives
in the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections. Of the native families of the
tropical flora, the family Myrtaceae, Asteraceae, Piperaceae, Lauraceae,
Verbenaceae, Lamiaceae, among many others stand out to be very important. These
tropical plants solvent extracts, decoctions or crude extracts and essential oils have
been researched extensively in relation to their bioactive potentials.
Due to the difficulty in the treatment of multi-resistant bacteria, it is notoriously
necessary to find new substances that have antimicrobial actions to be used in the
combat of these microorganisms. In this context, photodynamic therapy emerges as
a new alternative in this scenario. Light Emitting Diodes (LED) has been a very
268
L. E. da Silva et al.
cell membrane, and later accumulate at a higher level to inhibit protein synthesis
(Levy 1992; Paulsen et al. 1996; Munita and Arias 2016; Shriram et al. 2018).
A wide range of pathogenic bacterial species, including Staphylococcus aureus,
Acinetobacter baumannii, P. aeruginosa, in addition to fungal species, Candida
albicans show antibiotic resistance through this mechanism. Efflux pumps can
eliminate the antibiotic agents from bacterial strains, for example, trimethoprim and
fluoroquinolones resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Further, making use of
efflux pump inhibitors along with antibacterial drugs could be a better option of
treatment in overcoming the threatening microbial infections due to multi-drug
resistant microbes (Blair et al. 2015; Munita and Arias 2016; Khameneh et al.
2019). The structural modifications of porins (protein channels) can control the
diffusion of intracellular molecules, including antibiotics. Through this way, few
bacterial strains prevent the antibiotics influx by altering the structure of porins, and
also membrane permeability to exhibit resistance mechanism. This mechanism of
antimicrobial resistance is mediated by several microbes, including gram-negative
pathogenic Pseudomonas spp. and Acinetobacter spp. (De et al. 2001; Vila et al.
2007; Pages et al. 2008). Bacterial species belonging to Enterobacteriaceae can
degrade the b-lactam antibiotics (cephalosporins, penicillins, and carbapenems)
(Olsen et al. 2015; Blair et al. 2015). P. aeruginosa produces modifying enzymes
that destroy or alter the structure of antibiotics, including chloramphenicol and
fosfomycin (Munita and Arias 2016; Khameneh et al. 2019). In addition, a study
carried out with a-Bisabolol isolated from Matricaria chamomilla L in single and
complex form with b-Cyclodextrin as TetK and NorA efflux pump inhibitors
in Staphylococcus aureus strains. a-Bisabolol potentiated the action of tetracycline
and reduced the MIC of norfloxacin to a clinically relevant concentration. The
complexed substance showed synergism; however, the effect of the isolated
a-Bisabolol was superior to the complex. These results indicate a-Bisabolol is a
potential substance to be used as an efflux pump inhibitor (Cruz et al. 2020).
The continued use of medicinal plants and the empirical knowledge of the
communities about them has aroused interest in pharmacological research related to
plants. Many botanical families are being studied with the purpose of finding
biochemical substances in these plants against bacteria and fungi that are resistant to
multiple drugs that are currently available in the market. The combination of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants, together with technology and science
has enabled countless advances in research, aimed at the search for new alternatives
in the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections. Of the native families of the
tropical flora, the family Myrtaceae, Asteraceae, Piperaceae, Lauraceae,
Verbenaceae, Lamiaceae, among many others stand out to be very important. These
tropical plants solvent extracts, decoctions or crude extracts and essential oils have
been researched extensively in relation to their bioactive potentials.
Due to the difficulty in the treatment of multi-resistant bacteria, it is notoriously
necessary to find new substances that have antimicrobial actions to be used in the
combat of these microorganisms. In this context, photodynamic therapy emerges as
a new alternative in this scenario. Light Emitting Diodes (LED) has been a very
268
L. E. da Silva et al.