In contrast to its benefits, the release of nanomaterial-containing wastes has
become a threat, since they cause pollution to air, water, and soil (Oberdörster et al.
2005). Their size, equivalent to that of cellular components, allows them to easily
permeate cells, causing adverse biological effects (plants and animals) (Shang et al.
2014; Vecchio et al. 2012). In plant cells, NPs can enter from the apoplast and cross
the plasma membrane towards cytosol or other organelles via endocytosis, specific
membrane-bound transporter proteins or through induction of new pores by using
ion carrier substances; subsequently, they can be transported between cells through
Table 5.3 (continued)
Food or cultivar/
Reference
AE stimuli
Result
Apple (Malus domestica
var. Ligol) tissue/Wiktor
et al. (2016)
US at 21 kHz or 40 kHz and
180 W. Sonication lasted for
0, 5, 10, 20 and 30 min
(") TPC. 543.4 mg 100 g
−1
DW at 21 kHz - 30 min and
1046.5 mg/100 g
−1 DW at
40 kHz and 5 min, 27.4% and
145.3% higher than control,
respectively,
(#) TPC. Only at contact
sonication method for 30 min
(c_US_30), for which the
lowest amount of TPC
(298.5 mg/100 g DM) were
determined. 30% less than raw
apples
Black currant fruits
(Ribes nigrum L.)/
(Oancea et al. (2014)
US of 150 W power and
40 kHz frequency. Three
predetermined extraction times
(3, 6 and 10 min) and three
ultrasonic amplitudes (10, 40
and 70%). Sample preparation:
frozen, freeze-dried, and oven
air-dried
(") TPC. Increased by
approximately 4% compared
to control at 10 min and 70%
amplitude in all three cases of
sample preparation
(") TAC. Frozen: increase by
4% at 3 min at 70% amplitude.
Freeze-dried: increase by 20%
at 10 min and 70% amplitude.
Oven air-dried: increase by 7%
at 6 min and 70% amplitude.
All compared to control
(") AC – FRAP method.
Frozen: increase by 1% at
6 min and 40% amplitude.
Freeze-dried: increase by 28%
at 10 min and 70% amplitude.
Oven air-dried: increase by
144% at 3 min and 70%
amplitude. All compared to
control
Used abbreviations US Ultrasound, LC Lycopene content, AC Antioxidant capacity, TCC Total
carotenoid content, TPC Total phenolic content, TFC Total flavonoid content, TAC Total
anthocyanin content, DW dry weight, FW fresh weight, (") increment of, (#) decrement of
5 Role of Stress and Defense in Plant Secondary Metabolites …
169
become a threat, since they cause pollution to air, water, and soil (Oberdörster et al.
2005). Their size, equivalent to that of cellular components, allows them to easily
permeate cells, causing adverse biological effects (plants and animals) (Shang et al.
2014; Vecchio et al. 2012). In plant cells, NPs can enter from the apoplast and cross
the plasma membrane towards cytosol or other organelles via endocytosis, specific
membrane-bound transporter proteins or through induction of new pores by using
ion carrier substances; subsequently, they can be transported between cells through
Table 5.3 (continued)
Food or cultivar/
Reference
AE stimuli
Result
Apple (Malus domestica
var. Ligol) tissue/Wiktor
et al. (2016)
US at 21 kHz or 40 kHz and
180 W. Sonication lasted for
0, 5, 10, 20 and 30 min
(") TPC. 543.4 mg 100 g
−1
DW at 21 kHz - 30 min and
1046.5 mg/100 g
−1 DW at
40 kHz and 5 min, 27.4% and
145.3% higher than control,
respectively,
(#) TPC. Only at contact
sonication method for 30 min
(c_US_30), for which the
lowest amount of TPC
(298.5 mg/100 g DM) were
determined. 30% less than raw
apples
Black currant fruits
(Ribes nigrum L.)/
(Oancea et al. (2014)
US of 150 W power and
40 kHz frequency. Three
predetermined extraction times
(3, 6 and 10 min) and three
ultrasonic amplitudes (10, 40
and 70%). Sample preparation:
frozen, freeze-dried, and oven
air-dried
(") TPC. Increased by
approximately 4% compared
to control at 10 min and 70%
amplitude in all three cases of
sample preparation
(") TAC. Frozen: increase by
4% at 3 min at 70% amplitude.
Freeze-dried: increase by 20%
at 10 min and 70% amplitude.
Oven air-dried: increase by 7%
at 6 min and 70% amplitude.
All compared to control
(") AC – FRAP method.
Frozen: increase by 1% at
6 min and 40% amplitude.
Freeze-dried: increase by 28%
at 10 min and 70% amplitude.
Oven air-dried: increase by
144% at 3 min and 70%
amplitude. All compared to
control
Used abbreviations US Ultrasound, LC Lycopene content, AC Antioxidant capacity, TCC Total
carotenoid content, TPC Total phenolic content, TFC Total flavonoid content, TAC Total
anthocyanin content, DW dry weight, FW fresh weight, (") increment of, (#) decrement of
5 Role of Stress and Defense in Plant Secondary Metabolites …
169