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M. Raiford
in many ways in front of or behind the meter. Frequency regulation, microgrid services, demand charge response, load leveling, and emergency backup are just a few
of the ways that energy storage is vital to grid stabilization and the hybridization
of the world electrical grid. Electrochemical energy storage is key to implementing
solutions for the impending energy needs for the world. The lead battery industry has
established an unprecedented recycling rate of 99.3% for lead battery technologies
[1]. High recycling rates are complemented by the fact that over 80% of lead in use
is sourced from secondary recycling streams [1, 2].
Lead batteries are used widely in automotive applications, as starter-light-ignition
(SLI) batteries and as auxiliary safety (SLA) batteries, present in internal combustion
engine vehicles as a major component to the electrical system, but also serve vital
irreplaceable safety functions in hybridized and electric vehicles. Stop-start lead
batteries in mild hybrids have been highly adopted in the automotive industry at
~35% implementation in new US ICE vehicles and over 95% in new European ICE
vehicles [3–5]. In the USA, an estimated 4.5 million tons of CO 2 is saved through the
use of lead battery stop-start systems. Supporting automotive focused batteries are
large amounts of infrastructure, from lead producing smelters to state-of-the-art lead
battery production facilities, are present in every region of the world. Lead batteries
are not restricted to the automotive sector, and industrial, ESS, and UPS lead batteries
are produced in the tens of millions of units every year. Lead battery technology is
already poised to provide a sustainable, commercially available, and cost-effective
solution for ESS needs.
The US Department of Energy (DOE) has set clear goals for renewable and utility grid ESS systems based on a combination of technical and economic indicators.
These goals are summarized on a $/kW h and $/energy throughput basis. Lead batteries must improve in total cycle life, and several projects are underway to explore
both the fundamental aspects of lead battery electrode failure in ESS conditions
and also understanding the benefits of using battery management systems (BMS)
and suitable recuperative charging schemes, as well as the effect of morphological
changes of PbSO 4 on battery life. This paper will aim to summarize current research
in lead batteries in automotive and ESS applications, as well as some of the advanced
batteries utilized currently [7–16]. Furthermore, the paper will outline the areas of
research that are strategically important to improving lead battery performance [17].
Results and Discussion
The CBI has outlined key performance indicators that must improve in automotive
and ESS lead batteries. Automotive SLI and stop-start batteries must increase in
both recharge capability and high temperature durability. Improvements in these
performance metrics equate to more dynamic charge acceptance (DCA) (approaching
2A/Ah) and low cumulative damage of lead battery electrodes at sustain temperatures
of 75 °C. ESS batteries must cycle highly at 100% DOD, or the ESS system must
be sized to cycle appropriately. Cycle life or total capacity turnovers are crucial to
M. Raiford
in many ways in front of or behind the meter. Frequency regulation, microgrid services, demand charge response, load leveling, and emergency backup are just a few
of the ways that energy storage is vital to grid stabilization and the hybridization
of the world electrical grid. Electrochemical energy storage is key to implementing
solutions for the impending energy needs for the world. The lead battery industry has
established an unprecedented recycling rate of 99.3% for lead battery technologies
[1]. High recycling rates are complemented by the fact that over 80% of lead in use
is sourced from secondary recycling streams [1, 2].
Lead batteries are used widely in automotive applications, as starter-light-ignition
(SLI) batteries and as auxiliary safety (SLA) batteries, present in internal combustion
engine vehicles as a major component to the electrical system, but also serve vital
irreplaceable safety functions in hybridized and electric vehicles. Stop-start lead
batteries in mild hybrids have been highly adopted in the automotive industry at
~35% implementation in new US ICE vehicles and over 95% in new European ICE
vehicles [3–5]. In the USA, an estimated 4.5 million tons of CO 2 is saved through the
use of lead battery stop-start systems. Supporting automotive focused batteries are
large amounts of infrastructure, from lead producing smelters to state-of-the-art lead
battery production facilities, are present in every region of the world. Lead batteries
are not restricted to the automotive sector, and industrial, ESS, and UPS lead batteries
are produced in the tens of millions of units every year. Lead battery technology is
already poised to provide a sustainable, commercially available, and cost-effective
solution for ESS needs.
The US Department of Energy (DOE) has set clear goals for renewable and utility grid ESS systems based on a combination of technical and economic indicators.
These goals are summarized on a $/kW h and $/energy throughput basis. Lead batteries must improve in total cycle life, and several projects are underway to explore
both the fundamental aspects of lead battery electrode failure in ESS conditions
and also understanding the benefits of using battery management systems (BMS)
and suitable recuperative charging schemes, as well as the effect of morphological
changes of PbSO 4 on battery life. This paper will aim to summarize current research
in lead batteries in automotive and ESS applications, as well as some of the advanced
batteries utilized currently [7–16]. Furthermore, the paper will outline the areas of
research that are strategically important to improving lead battery performance [17].
Results and Discussion
The CBI has outlined key performance indicators that must improve in automotive
and ESS lead batteries. Automotive SLI and stop-start batteries must increase in
both recharge capability and high temperature durability. Improvements in these
performance metrics equate to more dynamic charge acceptance (DCA) (approaching
2A/Ah) and low cumulative damage of lead battery electrodes at sustain temperatures
of 75 °C. ESS batteries must cycle highly at 100% DOD, or the ESS system must
be sized to cycle appropriately. Cycle life or total capacity turnovers are crucial to