7.6 Molten Salt Graphitization of Amorphous Carbons
135
by enhancing the temperature to 1300 °C. Molten NaCl, not only causes the exfoliation/graphitization, but also protects the amorphous carbon material from intensive
oxidation at higher temperatures while greatly promotes the graphitization. The conversion of non-degradable plastic wastes into high-value conductive carbon materials
can have a significantly positive environmental impact.
References
1. M. Kutz (ed.), Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook, Processing, Materials and Applications, 2nd edn (Elsevier, 2017)
2. K. Chikaoui, M. Izerrouken, M. Djebara, M. Abdesselam, Polyethylene terephthalate
degradation under reactor neutron irradiation. Phys. Chem. 130, 431–435 (2017)
3. R.J.L. Escárcega, M.G.S. Anguiano, T. Serrano, J.Y. Chen, I. Gómez, Synthesis of unsaturated
polyester resin from waste cellulose and polyethylene terephthalate. Polym. Bull. 76, 4157–
4188 (2019)
4. I.T. Wysocki, P.L. Billon, Plastics at sea: Treaty design for a global solution to marine plastic
pollution. Environ. Sci. Policy 100, 94–104 (2019)
5. R.C. Thompson, C.J. Moore, F.S. vom Saal, S.H. Swan, Plastics, the environment and human
health: Current consensus and future trends. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 2153–2166 (2009)
6. L. Cauwenberghe, C.R. Janssen, Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption.
Environ. Pollut. 193, 65–70 (2014)
7. T. Galloway, C. Lewis, Marine microplastics. Curr. Biol. 27, 431–510 (2017)
8. B. Kunwar, H.N. Cheng, S.R. Chandrashekaran, B.K. Sharma, Plastics to fuel: A review.
Energy Rev. 54, 421–428 (2016)
9. A. Naji, M. Nuri, A. Dick Vethaak, Microplastics contamination in molluscs from the northern
part of the Persian Gulf. Environ. Pollut. 235, 113–120 (2018)
10. R. Geyer, J.R. Jambeck, K. Lavender Law, Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.
Sci. Adv. 3, 1700782 (2017)
11. C. Ioakeimidis, K.N. Fotopoulou, H.K. Karapanagioti, M. Geraga, C. Zeri, E. Papathanassiou
et al., The degradation potential of PET bottles in the marine environment: An ATR-FTIR
based approach. Sci. Rep. 6, 23501 (2016)
12. I. Abo El-Naga, M. Ragab, Benefits of utilization the recycle polyethylene terephthalate waste
plastic materials as a modifier to asphalt mixtures. Constr. Build. Mater. 219, 81–90 (2019)
13. N.S.L. Louzada J.A.C. Malko, M.D.T. Casagrande, D.Sc, Behavior of clayey soil reinforced
with polyethylene terephthalate. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 31, 04019218 (2019)
14. D.V. Marques, R.L. Barcelos, G.O.C. Parma, E. Girotto, A.C. Júnior, N.C. Pereira, R.F.
Magnago, Recycled polyethylene terephthalate and aluminum anodizing sludge-based boards
with flame resistance. Waste Manag. 92, 1–14 (2019)
15. A.B. Raheem, Z. Zainon Noor, A. Hassan, M.K. Abd Hamid, S.A. Samsudin, A.H. Sabeen,
Current developments in chemical recycling of post-consumer polyethylene terephthalate
wastes for new materials production: A review. J. Cleaner Prod. 225, 1052–1064 (2019)
16. T. Tomsej, J. Horak, S. Tomsejova, K. Krpec, J. Klanova, M. Dej et al., The impact of cocombustion of polyethylene plastics and wood in a small residential boiler on emissions of
gaseous pollutants, particulate matter, PAHs and 1,3,5-triphenylbenzene. Chemosphere 196,
18–24 (2018)
17. G. Lopez, M. Artetxe, M., Amutio, J. Alvarez, J. Bilbao, M. Olazar, Recent advances in the
gasification of waste plastics. A critical overview, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82, 576–596
(2018)
18. J. Alvarez, S. Kumagai, C. Wu, T. Yoshioka, J. Bilbao, M. Olazar et al., Hydrogen production
from biomass and plastic mixtures by pyrolysis-gasification. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 39,
10883–10891 (2014)
135
by enhancing the temperature to 1300 °C. Molten NaCl, not only causes the exfoliation/graphitization, but also protects the amorphous carbon material from intensive
oxidation at higher temperatures while greatly promotes the graphitization. The conversion of non-degradable plastic wastes into high-value conductive carbon materials
can have a significantly positive environmental impact.
References
1. M. Kutz (ed.), Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook, Processing, Materials and Applications, 2nd edn (Elsevier, 2017)
2. K. Chikaoui, M. Izerrouken, M. Djebara, M. Abdesselam, Polyethylene terephthalate
degradation under reactor neutron irradiation. Phys. Chem. 130, 431–435 (2017)
3. R.J.L. Escárcega, M.G.S. Anguiano, T. Serrano, J.Y. Chen, I. Gómez, Synthesis of unsaturated
polyester resin from waste cellulose and polyethylene terephthalate. Polym. Bull. 76, 4157–
4188 (2019)
4. I.T. Wysocki, P.L. Billon, Plastics at sea: Treaty design for a global solution to marine plastic
pollution. Environ. Sci. Policy 100, 94–104 (2019)
5. R.C. Thompson, C.J. Moore, F.S. vom Saal, S.H. Swan, Plastics, the environment and human
health: Current consensus and future trends. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 2153–2166 (2009)
6. L. Cauwenberghe, C.R. Janssen, Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption.
Environ. Pollut. 193, 65–70 (2014)
7. T. Galloway, C. Lewis, Marine microplastics. Curr. Biol. 27, 431–510 (2017)
8. B. Kunwar, H.N. Cheng, S.R. Chandrashekaran, B.K. Sharma, Plastics to fuel: A review.
Energy Rev. 54, 421–428 (2016)
9. A. Naji, M. Nuri, A. Dick Vethaak, Microplastics contamination in molluscs from the northern
part of the Persian Gulf. Environ. Pollut. 235, 113–120 (2018)
10. R. Geyer, J.R. Jambeck, K. Lavender Law, Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.
Sci. Adv. 3, 1700782 (2017)
11. C. Ioakeimidis, K.N. Fotopoulou, H.K. Karapanagioti, M. Geraga, C. Zeri, E. Papathanassiou
et al., The degradation potential of PET bottles in the marine environment: An ATR-FTIR
based approach. Sci. Rep. 6, 23501 (2016)
12. I. Abo El-Naga, M. Ragab, Benefits of utilization the recycle polyethylene terephthalate waste
plastic materials as a modifier to asphalt mixtures. Constr. Build. Mater. 219, 81–90 (2019)
13. N.S.L. Louzada J.A.C. Malko, M.D.T. Casagrande, D.Sc, Behavior of clayey soil reinforced
with polyethylene terephthalate. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 31, 04019218 (2019)
14. D.V. Marques, R.L. Barcelos, G.O.C. Parma, E. Girotto, A.C. Júnior, N.C. Pereira, R.F.
Magnago, Recycled polyethylene terephthalate and aluminum anodizing sludge-based boards
with flame resistance. Waste Manag. 92, 1–14 (2019)
15. A.B. Raheem, Z. Zainon Noor, A. Hassan, M.K. Abd Hamid, S.A. Samsudin, A.H. Sabeen,
Current developments in chemical recycling of post-consumer polyethylene terephthalate
wastes for new materials production: A review. J. Cleaner Prod. 225, 1052–1064 (2019)
16. T. Tomsej, J. Horak, S. Tomsejova, K. Krpec, J. Klanova, M. Dej et al., The impact of cocombustion of polyethylene plastics and wood in a small residential boiler on emissions of
gaseous pollutants, particulate matter, PAHs and 1,3,5-triphenylbenzene. Chemosphere 196,
18–24 (2018)
17. G. Lopez, M. Artetxe, M., Amutio, J. Alvarez, J. Bilbao, M. Olazar, Recent advances in the
gasification of waste plastics. A critical overview, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82, 576–596
(2018)
18. J. Alvarez, S. Kumagai, C. Wu, T. Yoshioka, J. Bilbao, M. Olazar et al., Hydrogen production
from biomass and plastic mixtures by pyrolysis-gasification. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 39,
10883–10891 (2014)