444
S. Das et al.
1.2 Problems, Consequence Associated, and Disease Caused
The late twentieth century has witnessed a rapid increase in the number of microbe
related infections. Unrequited exploitation of antimicrobial drugs and antibiotics in
treatments ultimately led to the advent of resistance among most of the microorganisms (Malato et al. 2009). MDR is defined as the non-susceptibility of a particular microorganism against a set of common drugs which once had detrimental
effects on the survivability of the microbe (Barancheshme and Munir 2018). As per
the WHO, these resistant microorganisms specifically belonging to bacteria, fungi,
viruses, and parasites lead to ineffective treatment offered by these antibiotics, resulting in doggedness and spreading of such deadly infections and infectious diseases.
Escherichia coli is considered one of the common fecal coliforms that contaminate
drinking water. It has been the prime indicator of fecal contamination in water quality monitoring for many decades (WHO 2004). With tropical and monsoon climatic
conditions in India, these coliforms with uttermost rate of incidence may be washed
into hospital water, creeks, rivers, streams, lakes, or groundwater. Where they come
in contact with other E. coli with significant reservoir of genes coding for MDR
and thus propagates the resistance leading to waterborne deadly infections. Other
bacteria which squad this phenomenon includes species from Klebsiella, Salmonella
enterica subsp. Enterica Serovar Typhi, Salmonella enterica subsp. Enterica Serovar
Paratyphi, Shigella spp., Vibrio cholerae, Acinetobacter sp., Clostridium spp., and
Bacillus anthracis, Legionella, Burkholderia . Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus
has also been found in different WWTP effluents (WHO 2004).
Although these phenomena of drug-resistance are natural, behemoth rise in the
number of immune-compromised states specifically due to HIV-infection, HSV and
Hepatitis-B infections, TB Infection, diabetes, brutal burns, and organ transplantation
brands the human body an unforced target for nosocomial infectious diseases, and
promotes further spread of MDR. According to the WHO report, greater rates of resistance against antibiotics as cephalosporin and fluoroquinolones in Escherichia coli
associated with coliform-based infections, against cephalosporin and carbapenems
in Klebsiella pneumoniae associated to pneumonia, against methicillin in Staphylococcus aureus associated to skin borne diseases, against penicillin in Streptococcus
pneumoniae, against fluoroquinolones in Nontyphoidal Salmonella, against fluoroquinolones in Shigella species associated with dysentery, against cephalosporin
in Neisseria gonorrhoeae associated to gonorrhoeae, and against rifampicin in
Mycobacterium tuberculosis associated to tuberculosis, and against isoniazid and
fluoroquinolone in urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream and other nosocomial infections. In case of fungal strains, a lesser number of drugs have been identified till today. Unfortunately some species of fungus belonging to genus (Ventola
2015) Aspergillus, Cryptococcus, Candida, Scopulariopsis, Pseudallescheria, and
Trichospron have been reported to have developed resistance polyene macrolides
(amphotericin B), azole derivatives (ketoconazole, fluconazole, itraconazole, and
voriconazole), nucleic acid synthesis inhibitors (flucytosine), and glucan synthase
inhibitors (echinocandins) (Fernández-Silva et al. 2013). Long-lasting drug exposure
S. Das et al.
1.2 Problems, Consequence Associated, and Disease Caused
The late twentieth century has witnessed a rapid increase in the number of microbe
related infections. Unrequited exploitation of antimicrobial drugs and antibiotics in
treatments ultimately led to the advent of resistance among most of the microorganisms (Malato et al. 2009). MDR is defined as the non-susceptibility of a particular microorganism against a set of common drugs which once had detrimental
effects on the survivability of the microbe (Barancheshme and Munir 2018). As per
the WHO, these resistant microorganisms specifically belonging to bacteria, fungi,
viruses, and parasites lead to ineffective treatment offered by these antibiotics, resulting in doggedness and spreading of such deadly infections and infectious diseases.
Escherichia coli is considered one of the common fecal coliforms that contaminate
drinking water. It has been the prime indicator of fecal contamination in water quality monitoring for many decades (WHO 2004). With tropical and monsoon climatic
conditions in India, these coliforms with uttermost rate of incidence may be washed
into hospital water, creeks, rivers, streams, lakes, or groundwater. Where they come
in contact with other E. coli with significant reservoir of genes coding for MDR
and thus propagates the resistance leading to waterborne deadly infections. Other
bacteria which squad this phenomenon includes species from Klebsiella, Salmonella
enterica subsp. Enterica Serovar Typhi, Salmonella enterica subsp. Enterica Serovar
Paratyphi, Shigella spp., Vibrio cholerae, Acinetobacter sp., Clostridium spp., and
Bacillus anthracis, Legionella, Burkholderia . Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus
has also been found in different WWTP effluents (WHO 2004).
Although these phenomena of drug-resistance are natural, behemoth rise in the
number of immune-compromised states specifically due to HIV-infection, HSV and
Hepatitis-B infections, TB Infection, diabetes, brutal burns, and organ transplantation
brands the human body an unforced target for nosocomial infectious diseases, and
promotes further spread of MDR. According to the WHO report, greater rates of resistance against antibiotics as cephalosporin and fluoroquinolones in Escherichia coli
associated with coliform-based infections, against cephalosporin and carbapenems
in Klebsiella pneumoniae associated to pneumonia, against methicillin in Staphylococcus aureus associated to skin borne diseases, against penicillin in Streptococcus
pneumoniae, against fluoroquinolones in Nontyphoidal Salmonella, against fluoroquinolones in Shigella species associated with dysentery, against cephalosporin
in Neisseria gonorrhoeae associated to gonorrhoeae, and against rifampicin in
Mycobacterium tuberculosis associated to tuberculosis, and against isoniazid and
fluoroquinolone in urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream and other nosocomial infections. In case of fungal strains, a lesser number of drugs have been identified till today. Unfortunately some species of fungus belonging to genus (Ventola
2015) Aspergillus, Cryptococcus, Candida, Scopulariopsis, Pseudallescheria, and
Trichospron have been reported to have developed resistance polyene macrolides
(amphotericin B), azole derivatives (ketoconazole, fluconazole, itraconazole, and
voriconazole), nucleic acid synthesis inhibitors (flucytosine), and glucan synthase
inhibitors (echinocandins) (Fernández-Silva et al. 2013). Long-lasting drug exposure