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M. B. Johnson and M. Mehrvar
and sanitizing activities, producing a seasonally variable WWW stream requiring
handling, treatment and disposal. Where possible, WWW effluents are reused for
irrigation, which reduce the volume of water abstracted from the environment for
irrigation, however, this practice can potentially negatively affect soil quality. The
WF process has been applied to estimate the impact of wine-making on freshwater
resources at both the winery and regional levels; however, data are still limited,
and differing methodological approaches are still being developed and refined. The
consumptive and water-balance approaches yield significantly different results when
assessing the green and blue WFs of the viticultural stage. In addition, there is
currently no definitive approach in place to quantify the grey WF, particularly during
the vinification stage. The current variability in application of the WF concept to
the assessment of wine-making limits the ability to use water footprinting as a
means to benchmark performance. Despite this, practical applications of the WF
approach currently include identifying key process and technological modifications and upgrades that can be implemented to improve product sustainability and
marketability. Future research directions could include utilizing the WF approach
to model future climate change impacts on local and regional water resources in
wine-producing areas, as well as the development of a standardized WF assessment
approach that would allow for the creation of a global benchmarking database.
Acknowledgements We thank Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
(NSERC) and Ryerson University Faculty of Engineering and Architectural Science Dean’s
Research Fund for financial support.
References
1. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (nd) Canada’s wine industry. https://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/
food-products/processed-food-and-beverages/processed-food-and-beverages-sector/canadas-wine-industry/. Accessed 8 Aug 2020
2. Aivazidou E, Tsolakis N (2020) A water footprint review of Italian wine: drivers, barriers, and
practices for sustainable stewardship. Water 12:396. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020369
3. Alañón ME, Díaz-Maroto MC, Pérez-Coello MS (2018) New strategies to improve sensorial
quality of white wines by wood contact. Beverages 4:91. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages404
0091
4. Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, Smith M (1998) Crop evapotranspiration—guidelines for
computing crop water requirements. FAO irrigation and drainage paper 56, FAO, Rome, Italy.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0490E/x0490e00.htm. Accessed 8 Aug 2020
5. Australian Government (2017) Food Standards Code—Standard 4.5.1—Wine production requirements (Australia only). https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2017C01001.
Accessed 10 July 2020
6. Beverage Industry Environmental Roundtable (2012) Water use benchmarking in the beverage
industry—trends and observations 2012. https://provisioncoalition.com/Assets/ProvisionCoa
lition/Documents/Library%20Content/Water%20Management/BIER%20Water%20Use%
20Benchmarking%20Report%202012(2).pdf. Accessed 10 July 2020
7. Biddoccu M, Ferraris S, Opsi F, Cavallo E (2015) Effects of soil management on long-term
runoff and soil erosion rates in sloping vineyards. In: Lollino G, Manconi A, Clague J, Shan W,
M. B. Johnson and M. Mehrvar
and sanitizing activities, producing a seasonally variable WWW stream requiring
handling, treatment and disposal. Where possible, WWW effluents are reused for
irrigation, which reduce the volume of water abstracted from the environment for
irrigation, however, this practice can potentially negatively affect soil quality. The
WF process has been applied to estimate the impact of wine-making on freshwater
resources at both the winery and regional levels; however, data are still limited,
and differing methodological approaches are still being developed and refined. The
consumptive and water-balance approaches yield significantly different results when
assessing the green and blue WFs of the viticultural stage. In addition, there is
currently no definitive approach in place to quantify the grey WF, particularly during
the vinification stage. The current variability in application of the WF concept to
the assessment of wine-making limits the ability to use water footprinting as a
means to benchmark performance. Despite this, practical applications of the WF
approach currently include identifying key process and technological modifications and upgrades that can be implemented to improve product sustainability and
marketability. Future research directions could include utilizing the WF approach
to model future climate change impacts on local and regional water resources in
wine-producing areas, as well as the development of a standardized WF assessment
approach that would allow for the creation of a global benchmarking database.
Acknowledgements We thank Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
(NSERC) and Ryerson University Faculty of Engineering and Architectural Science Dean’s
Research Fund for financial support.
References
1. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (nd) Canada’s wine industry. https://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/
food-products/processed-food-and-beverages/processed-food-and-beverages-sector/canadas-wine-industry/. Accessed 8 Aug 2020
2. Aivazidou E, Tsolakis N (2020) A water footprint review of Italian wine: drivers, barriers, and
practices for sustainable stewardship. Water 12:396. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020369
3. Alañón ME, Díaz-Maroto MC, Pérez-Coello MS (2018) New strategies to improve sensorial
quality of white wines by wood contact. Beverages 4:91. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages404
0091
4. Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, Smith M (1998) Crop evapotranspiration—guidelines for
computing crop water requirements. FAO irrigation and drainage paper 56, FAO, Rome, Italy.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0490E/x0490e00.htm. Accessed 8 Aug 2020
5. Australian Government (2017) Food Standards Code—Standard 4.5.1—Wine production requirements (Australia only). https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2017C01001.
Accessed 10 July 2020
6. Beverage Industry Environmental Roundtable (2012) Water use benchmarking in the beverage
industry—trends and observations 2012. https://provisioncoalition.com/Assets/ProvisionCoa
lition/Documents/Library%20Content/Water%20Management/BIER%20Water%20Use%
20Benchmarking%20Report%202012(2).pdf. Accessed 10 July 2020
7. Biddoccu M, Ferraris S, Opsi F, Cavallo E (2015) Effects of soil management on long-term
runoff and soil erosion rates in sloping vineyards. In: Lollino G, Manconi A, Clague J, Shan W,