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M. B. Johnson and M. Mehrvar
The viticultural and vinification stages may be conducted at a single location, with
the winery located directly adjacent to the vineyard. Alternatively, a winery may act
as a stand-alone operation, with grapes acquired from offsite vineyards. Similarly, a
vineyard may act as a stand-alone operation, shipping grapes to one or more wineries.
Some wineries may choose to supplement the grapes grown on-site with additional
fruit from another vineyard. No matter where they are grown, a WF was exerted in
the production of the grapes.
3 Water Use and Conservation
To develop an accurate estimate of the WF of wine production, it is important to
understand water use practices and conservation methods available throughout the
process. The following sub-sections outline the way in which water is used during
viticulture, vinification and other areas of the vineyard and winery operations.
3.1 Water Usage During Viticulture
The single largest use of water abstracted from the environment during viticulture is
for irrigation of the vineyard. Irrigation needs vary geographically, and are strongly
affected by local climate and weather conditions. In areas that receive 500–700 mm of
rain annually, irrigation may only be required periodically to address a prolonged dry
spell [25, 27, 56]. Despite this, wine-making can flourish in drier climates provided
irrigation rates can meet the needs of the vines to support grape berry growth, such
as the Mendoza area of Argentina, a desert climate which sees an average annual
precipitation as of less than 250 mm [46]. Irrigation technologies include furrow,
overhead sprinkler and drip (trickle) irrigation [33].
In addition to local climate and weather patterns, the quality and hydraulic properties of soil in the vineyard can impact the total volume of water required to sustain
the vines and ensure proper growth of the grape berries [27]. While most of the vine
roots are located in the top soil, it is the deeper soil layers into which some roots
burrow that are the most important factor affecting availability of water to the vines
[25]. Good drainage is also needed for proper vine growth. Chalk, which is porous,
promotes the storage of water over the winter while also providing good drainage.
Sand, by contrast, provides virtually no storage of water or nutrients, but it is resistant to infestations of Phylloxera. Vines can be grown in many different soil types
including clay, gravel, granite, limestone and slate, each providing varying levels of
water storage and drainage. It is, therefore, possible that irrigation requirements can
vary even within the same vineyard if soil conditions vary spatially.
Water utilized by the vines is not only incorporated into the grape berry, and,
therefore, directly into the final wine product, it is also used for plant growth. Leaves
are also occasionally trimmed from the vines to improve airflow and increase sunlight
M. B. Johnson and M. Mehrvar
The viticultural and vinification stages may be conducted at a single location, with
the winery located directly adjacent to the vineyard. Alternatively, a winery may act
as a stand-alone operation, with grapes acquired from offsite vineyards. Similarly, a
vineyard may act as a stand-alone operation, shipping grapes to one or more wineries.
Some wineries may choose to supplement the grapes grown on-site with additional
fruit from another vineyard. No matter where they are grown, a WF was exerted in
the production of the grapes.
3 Water Use and Conservation
To develop an accurate estimate of the WF of wine production, it is important to
understand water use practices and conservation methods available throughout the
process. The following sub-sections outline the way in which water is used during
viticulture, vinification and other areas of the vineyard and winery operations.
3.1 Water Usage During Viticulture
The single largest use of water abstracted from the environment during viticulture is
for irrigation of the vineyard. Irrigation needs vary geographically, and are strongly
affected by local climate and weather conditions. In areas that receive 500–700 mm of
rain annually, irrigation may only be required periodically to address a prolonged dry
spell [25, 27, 56]. Despite this, wine-making can flourish in drier climates provided
irrigation rates can meet the needs of the vines to support grape berry growth, such
as the Mendoza area of Argentina, a desert climate which sees an average annual
precipitation as of less than 250 mm [46]. Irrigation technologies include furrow,
overhead sprinkler and drip (trickle) irrigation [33].
In addition to local climate and weather patterns, the quality and hydraulic properties of soil in the vineyard can impact the total volume of water required to sustain
the vines and ensure proper growth of the grape berries [27]. While most of the vine
roots are located in the top soil, it is the deeper soil layers into which some roots
burrow that are the most important factor affecting availability of water to the vines
[25]. Good drainage is also needed for proper vine growth. Chalk, which is porous,
promotes the storage of water over the winter while also providing good drainage.
Sand, by contrast, provides virtually no storage of water or nutrients, but it is resistant to infestations of Phylloxera. Vines can be grown in many different soil types
including clay, gravel, granite, limestone and slate, each providing varying levels of
water storage and drainage. It is, therefore, possible that irrigation requirements can
vary even within the same vineyard if soil conditions vary spatially.
Water utilized by the vines is not only incorporated into the grape berry, and,
therefore, directly into the final wine product, it is also used for plant growth. Leaves
are also occasionally trimmed from the vines to improve airflow and increase sunlight