stable for the phytoremediation of insecticide DDT and concluded that DDT did not
cause growth inhibition in HRCs of C. intybus and B. juncea at the added concentration. These cultures confirmed that the growth pattern, biomass, and differentiation are comparable to those of nontreated controls. Similarly, Scheel and
Sandermann (1977) reported in parsley and soybean and observed rapid uptake of
DDT. It has been suggested that the transformation of examined pesticides in the
plants mostly occurs via direct oxidation and subsequent conjugation pathways
(Kurashvili et al. 2016). It is estimated and reported by the US department of defense
that, between 16 billion to 160 billion needed for clean-up of unexploded munitions
(U.S. GAO 2014).
2.4 Phytoremediation of Azo Dyes
Rapid industrial improvement particularly from pharmaceutical, fabric, food
processing units, leather, and agricultural-based industries is a matter of serious
concern for causing environmental pollution. Almost 10,000 different textile dyes
such as reactive, disperse, basic, etc. are used for coloring and printing purposes by
processing industries (Jha et al. 2020). Mainly, 90% of the dyeing process involves
from the overall textile-released liquid effluents, which consists of a mixture of
various pollutants viz., organochlorines, surfactants acids or bases, HMs lead, salts,
phthalates, suspended solids, dyes, and several other chemicals (Zaharia and Suteu
2013). The main dye used frequently in textile is azo dye as a result of their superior
features, durability against microbial decomposition and higher photolytic strength,
and risk to the environment and human health in view of their renowned issues such
as mutagenicity, carcinogenic effects, and toxicity (Forss and Welander 2011;
Mansour et al. 2011). Taking all of this into account, HRs technology is an
alternative to physical and conventional methods for detoxification (Golob et al.
2005). Textile dyes degradation was successfully reported with Tagetes patula and
Physalis minima HRCs by inducting the enzymes DCIP reductase and azo reductase
(Jha et al. 2015; Patil et al. 2009). The phytotoxicity experiments demonstrated that
the nonhazardous quality of degraded dyes by using HRs of P. minima and Sesuvium
portulacastrum (Jha et al. 2014; Lokhande et al. 2015). Jha et al. (2016) reported in
Ipomoea carnea that synergetic activity of oxidative and reductive enzymes
discharged from the HRCs may be the reason for the phytoremediation of the
dyes. In another dye degradation report, the dye remediation was very effective
with reactive red 120 as inducer in HRCs of H. annuus with unique attention on the
effect of light on adsorption equilibrium and dye-degradation kinetics (Srikantan
et al. 2018). It has been reported that B. juncea HRCs increase the decolonization of
methyl orange to 92% within 4 days of the incubation period. The enzyme assay of
HRs obtained after the decolorization of methyl orange indicated considerable
intracellular laccase activity.
2 Hairy Roots as a Source for Phytoremediation
37
cause growth inhibition in HRCs of C. intybus and B. juncea at the added concentration. These cultures confirmed that the growth pattern, biomass, and differentiation are comparable to those of nontreated controls. Similarly, Scheel and
Sandermann (1977) reported in parsley and soybean and observed rapid uptake of
DDT. It has been suggested that the transformation of examined pesticides in the
plants mostly occurs via direct oxidation and subsequent conjugation pathways
(Kurashvili et al. 2016). It is estimated and reported by the US department of defense
that, between 16 billion to 160 billion needed for clean-up of unexploded munitions
(U.S. GAO 2014).
2.4 Phytoremediation of Azo Dyes
Rapid industrial improvement particularly from pharmaceutical, fabric, food
processing units, leather, and agricultural-based industries is a matter of serious
concern for causing environmental pollution. Almost 10,000 different textile dyes
such as reactive, disperse, basic, etc. are used for coloring and printing purposes by
processing industries (Jha et al. 2020). Mainly, 90% of the dyeing process involves
from the overall textile-released liquid effluents, which consists of a mixture of
various pollutants viz., organochlorines, surfactants acids or bases, HMs lead, salts,
phthalates, suspended solids, dyes, and several other chemicals (Zaharia and Suteu
2013). The main dye used frequently in textile is azo dye as a result of their superior
features, durability against microbial decomposition and higher photolytic strength,
and risk to the environment and human health in view of their renowned issues such
as mutagenicity, carcinogenic effects, and toxicity (Forss and Welander 2011;
Mansour et al. 2011). Taking all of this into account, HRs technology is an
alternative to physical and conventional methods for detoxification (Golob et al.
2005). Textile dyes degradation was successfully reported with Tagetes patula and
Physalis minima HRCs by inducting the enzymes DCIP reductase and azo reductase
(Jha et al. 2015; Patil et al. 2009). The phytotoxicity experiments demonstrated that
the nonhazardous quality of degraded dyes by using HRs of P. minima and Sesuvium
portulacastrum (Jha et al. 2014; Lokhande et al. 2015). Jha et al. (2016) reported in
Ipomoea carnea that synergetic activity of oxidative and reductive enzymes
discharged from the HRCs may be the reason for the phytoremediation of the
dyes. In another dye degradation report, the dye remediation was very effective
with reactive red 120 as inducer in HRCs of H. annuus with unique attention on the
effect of light on adsorption equilibrium and dye-degradation kinetics (Srikantan
et al. 2018). It has been reported that B. juncea HRCs increase the decolonization of
methyl orange to 92% within 4 days of the incubation period. The enzyme assay of
HRs obtained after the decolorization of methyl orange indicated considerable
intracellular laccase activity.
2 Hairy Roots as a Source for Phytoremediation
37