2011). However, we found that there exists a complex interaction between sanitation
practices (i.e., latrine usage) and diarrhoea. For instance, occasional usage of the
latrine was a risk factor but ‘never used latrine’ is insignificant. The reasons for this
inconsistency maybe because of the fact bacterial pathogens exploit inconsistent
household sanitation practices than without one. Additionally, our results show that
the level of rainfall increases the risk of diarrhoea which is inconsistent with the
studies of Drayna et al. (2010) and Singh et al. (2001). With regards to the
correlation between contaminated water and diarrhoea; improved water facilities,
better sanitation practices and patterns of rainfall are the major defining contexts to
be considered. The study encompasses major health hazards caused by different
kinds of water pollutants (biological and chemical) and in line with this; the
following section reviews policy formulations and coping mechanisms for
sustainability.
5 Policy Instruments
The institutional framework is required to mitigate the health risks caused by
untreated drinking water. On the human rights to safe drinking water; UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2002) argued on the legal bases that it
is necessary to decrease the risk of a water-related disease. UN reaffirmed the
recognition in its subsequent resolutions – The Human Right to Water and Sanitation, 2010/11. Besides the UN, other global agencies through their decisions and
scheme of action engaged in combating the ill effects of water contamination. These
include the Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development (1992), World
Health Assembly Resolution- Drinking Water, Sanitation, and Health (2011) and 6th
World Water Forum-Ministerial Declaration (2012).
The Government of India (GoI) has enacted a good number of laws to control
water pollution. Notably, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
and Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 has provided the
legal framework for the prevention and control of water pollution resulting from the
disposal of untreated sewage into water bodies. But the Water Cess Act aimed at
generating more revenue rather than limiting the usage of water by industries
(Chakraborty and Mukhopadhyay 2014). Environment Protection Act, 1986, lay
down standards for the discharge of pollutants from the industries so that the quality
of water is not affected. The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution, 1992,
highlighted the need for a sewage treatment system in water polluted areas. However, studies on the reduction in water pollution level suggest that charges of
pollution tax should be higher than the rate of water cess to achieve prescribed
water quality standards (Murty and Kumar 2011). Water Quality Assessment
Authority set up by the Ministry of Environment and Forests has issued the Uniform
Protocol on Water Quality Monitoring Order, 2005, and the Uniform Drinking
Water Monitoring Protocol, 2013. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
launched the National Lake Conservation Plan in 2008 to restore the lake water
19 Health Impacts of Contaminated Water in India: Coping Strategies for. . .
399
practices (i.e., latrine usage) and diarrhoea. For instance, occasional usage of the
latrine was a risk factor but ‘never used latrine’ is insignificant. The reasons for this
inconsistency maybe because of the fact bacterial pathogens exploit inconsistent
household sanitation practices than without one. Additionally, our results show that
the level of rainfall increases the risk of diarrhoea which is inconsistent with the
studies of Drayna et al. (2010) and Singh et al. (2001). With regards to the
correlation between contaminated water and diarrhoea; improved water facilities,
better sanitation practices and patterns of rainfall are the major defining contexts to
be considered. The study encompasses major health hazards caused by different
kinds of water pollutants (biological and chemical) and in line with this; the
following section reviews policy formulations and coping mechanisms for
sustainability.
5 Policy Instruments
The institutional framework is required to mitigate the health risks caused by
untreated drinking water. On the human rights to safe drinking water; UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2002) argued on the legal bases that it
is necessary to decrease the risk of a water-related disease. UN reaffirmed the
recognition in its subsequent resolutions – The Human Right to Water and Sanitation, 2010/11. Besides the UN, other global agencies through their decisions and
scheme of action engaged in combating the ill effects of water contamination. These
include the Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development (1992), World
Health Assembly Resolution- Drinking Water, Sanitation, and Health (2011) and 6th
World Water Forum-Ministerial Declaration (2012).
The Government of India (GoI) has enacted a good number of laws to control
water pollution. Notably, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
and Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 has provided the
legal framework for the prevention and control of water pollution resulting from the
disposal of untreated sewage into water bodies. But the Water Cess Act aimed at
generating more revenue rather than limiting the usage of water by industries
(Chakraborty and Mukhopadhyay 2014). Environment Protection Act, 1986, lay
down standards for the discharge of pollutants from the industries so that the quality
of water is not affected. The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution, 1992,
highlighted the need for a sewage treatment system in water polluted areas. However, studies on the reduction in water pollution level suggest that charges of
pollution tax should be higher than the rate of water cess to achieve prescribed
water quality standards (Murty and Kumar 2011). Water Quality Assessment
Authority set up by the Ministry of Environment and Forests has issued the Uniform
Protocol on Water Quality Monitoring Order, 2005, and the Uniform Drinking
Water Monitoring Protocol, 2013. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
launched the National Lake Conservation Plan in 2008 to restore the lake water
19 Health Impacts of Contaminated Water in India: Coping Strategies for. . .
399