310
F. E. K. Sato and T. Nakata
22.1 Introduction
It is inevitable the advance of the electrification of vehicles considering that the
transportation area accounts 25% of the total the energy consumption (U.S. Energy
Information Administration 2016) and CO 2 emission (International Energy Agency
2009) of the word, and the several global efforts to combat climate changes.
Compare to the internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) which depend totally
to fossil fuels, the electric vehicles, which includes hybrid electric vehicles (HEV),
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), battery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel
cell vehicle (FCV) depends partially or totally on the electricity. Currently, the EVs
account 32.9% of the vehicle sales in Japan (Next Generation Vehicle Promotion
Center 2018), and it is expected a rapid increase in its share in the following years.
Here, the size and weight of its batteries vary depending on the electrification level,
driving range of vehicle and its technology. Many of the current EV use LiB. However,
Nickel-metal hybrid batteries (NiMH) are still available, and this study considers as
EVB both of them.
Previous studies (Argonne National Laboratory 2012) estimate the weighs of the
LiB for electric vehicles as 19 kg for HEV, 89 kg for PHEV and 210 kg for BEV;
and the increment of the dependency of the transportation sector on this technology
in a middle and long term seems inevitable.
As is well known, sustainable production of the LiBs in the upstream of the
supply chain is indispensable; however, an adequate collection, treatment, recycling
and reusing of those batteries in the downstream stage is also necessary considering
the following aspects:
• Security: Electrical, fire-explosion, and chemical hazard potential of the LiBs
(Diekmann Jan et al. 2018). The correct treatment and disposal, including
restricting the inappropriate second use of them, will avoid high scale accident.
• Legal: Considering the aspect mentioned above, many national-level governments
request to the automakers be responsible for the collection and the adequate
treatment of the LiBs (European Union 2013).
• Environmental: Manufacturing phase will dominate environmental impact across
the life cycle of the LiB. Here, the carbon intensity of the electricity used in the
production of its cells is the most impact-intensive, and the cascaded use system
appears significantly beneficial (Ager-Wick Ellingsen Linda et al. 2013) (Leila
et al. 2017).
• Economic: Currently, the processing and transportation cost of scrapped LiB is
approximately 10 to 15 thousand yens per unit of battery for HV in Japan (Honda
Motor Co. 2017); being a critical amount when the total weight of a scrapped
EVB is considered. Moreover, valuable critical metals such as Co and Ni can be
recovered with an adequate recycling process (Olivetti et al. 2017). Additionally,
batteries are applied in different fields of energy storage and the reusing of them
could also promote the use of renewable energies.
F. E. K. Sato and T. Nakata
22.1 Introduction
It is inevitable the advance of the electrification of vehicles considering that the
transportation area accounts 25% of the total the energy consumption (U.S. Energy
Information Administration 2016) and CO 2 emission (International Energy Agency
2009) of the word, and the several global efforts to combat climate changes.
Compare to the internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) which depend totally
to fossil fuels, the electric vehicles, which includes hybrid electric vehicles (HEV),
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), battery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel
cell vehicle (FCV) depends partially or totally on the electricity. Currently, the EVs
account 32.9% of the vehicle sales in Japan (Next Generation Vehicle Promotion
Center 2018), and it is expected a rapid increase in its share in the following years.
Here, the size and weight of its batteries vary depending on the electrification level,
driving range of vehicle and its technology. Many of the current EV use LiB. However,
Nickel-metal hybrid batteries (NiMH) are still available, and this study considers as
EVB both of them.
Previous studies (Argonne National Laboratory 2012) estimate the weighs of the
LiB for electric vehicles as 19 kg for HEV, 89 kg for PHEV and 210 kg for BEV;
and the increment of the dependency of the transportation sector on this technology
in a middle and long term seems inevitable.
As is well known, sustainable production of the LiBs in the upstream of the
supply chain is indispensable; however, an adequate collection, treatment, recycling
and reusing of those batteries in the downstream stage is also necessary considering
the following aspects:
• Security: Electrical, fire-explosion, and chemical hazard potential of the LiBs
(Diekmann Jan et al. 2018). The correct treatment and disposal, including
restricting the inappropriate second use of them, will avoid high scale accident.
• Legal: Considering the aspect mentioned above, many national-level governments
request to the automakers be responsible for the collection and the adequate
treatment of the LiBs (European Union 2013).
• Environmental: Manufacturing phase will dominate environmental impact across
the life cycle of the LiB. Here, the carbon intensity of the electricity used in the
production of its cells is the most impact-intensive, and the cascaded use system
appears significantly beneficial (Ager-Wick Ellingsen Linda et al. 2013) (Leila
et al. 2017).
• Economic: Currently, the processing and transportation cost of scrapped LiB is
approximately 10 to 15 thousand yens per unit of battery for HV in Japan (Honda
Motor Co. 2017); being a critical amount when the total weight of a scrapped
EVB is considered. Moreover, valuable critical metals such as Co and Ni can be
recovered with an adequate recycling process (Olivetti et al. 2017). Additionally,
batteries are applied in different fields of energy storage and the reusing of them
could also promote the use of renewable energies.