530
recommended that optimal maternal nutrition can be achieved through various
actions, including measures to reduce the burden of infections, provision of food
supplements and reduction of food security in households, except for trace elements
from maternal health (Bhutta and Haider 2009). Allen argued that the global focus
on nutritional supplement systems is a “top-down” attitude to malnutrition and distracts from the search for a sustainable nutritional approach (Allen 2003).
Researchers have reported an association between a high-quality or nutrient- rich
diet and a reduced risk of adverse outcomes at birth in a limited number of observational food-based studies (Allen 2005; El-Bastawissi et al. 2007).
The animal food sources are considered best that’s why Allen emphasized to
increase the consumption and production from those sources. This is another sustainable and cost-effective method of increasing the total value of the diet in the family,
which, as shown by some models (Allen 2003). It is very important to understand and
avoid the negative effect on fetus growth and development that is resulted from foodborne contamination alongside nutritional approaches that meet the nutritional needs
of pregnant women. This may pose a potential threat to seafood, dairy products, poultry, meat, fruits and vegetables (Cox and Phelan 2009; Tan et al. 2009). In a review by
Bhutta et al. (2008), nutritional approaches have been considered to have potential,
but so far, it has not been sufficiently developed and tested (Bhutta et al. 2008).
24.4 Energy and Macronutrients
The daily energy requirement for stability of normal-weight women with relatively
active lifestyle is increased if she is expecting child depending upon the pregnancy
stage. A good balance of macronutrient is achieved by slightly increasing energy
intakes within the dietary guidance recommendations. In addition, especially in
obese and overweight women with increased risk of miscarriage, pre-eclampsia,
gestational diabetes, as well as type 2 diabetes and obesity also resulted by excess
calories and macronutrients intake during pregnancy may be just as damaging as
their deficiency (Bruce 2014; Catalano and Demouzon 2015). Hence mother’s
requirement during lactation for milk production is moderately increased. The
Italian recommended dietary allowance in 2014 suggested a rise in calories as per
requirements for a total of 76,530 kilocalories during the first trimester and additional requirement of 69 kilocalories per day. Similarly, 266 kilocalories per day and
496 kilocalories per day for the second trimester and the third trimester of pregnancy is required (Società di Nutrizione Umana 2014).
24.4.1 Protein
During maternal tissue and fetal development, protein synthesis demand increases
and macronutrient such as protein needs more considerations during pregnancy,
especially during the third trimester. Negative effect on health in term of weight and
S. Hassan et al.
recommended that optimal maternal nutrition can be achieved through various
actions, including measures to reduce the burden of infections, provision of food
supplements and reduction of food security in households, except for trace elements
from maternal health (Bhutta and Haider 2009). Allen argued that the global focus
on nutritional supplement systems is a “top-down” attitude to malnutrition and distracts from the search for a sustainable nutritional approach (Allen 2003).
Researchers have reported an association between a high-quality or nutrient- rich
diet and a reduced risk of adverse outcomes at birth in a limited number of observational food-based studies (Allen 2005; El-Bastawissi et al. 2007).
The animal food sources are considered best that’s why Allen emphasized to
increase the consumption and production from those sources. This is another sustainable and cost-effective method of increasing the total value of the diet in the family,
which, as shown by some models (Allen 2003). It is very important to understand and
avoid the negative effect on fetus growth and development that is resulted from foodborne contamination alongside nutritional approaches that meet the nutritional needs
of pregnant women. This may pose a potential threat to seafood, dairy products, poultry, meat, fruits and vegetables (Cox and Phelan 2009; Tan et al. 2009). In a review by
Bhutta et al. (2008), nutritional approaches have been considered to have potential,
but so far, it has not been sufficiently developed and tested (Bhutta et al. 2008).
24.4 Energy and Macronutrients
The daily energy requirement for stability of normal-weight women with relatively
active lifestyle is increased if she is expecting child depending upon the pregnancy
stage. A good balance of macronutrient is achieved by slightly increasing energy
intakes within the dietary guidance recommendations. In addition, especially in
obese and overweight women with increased risk of miscarriage, pre-eclampsia,
gestational diabetes, as well as type 2 diabetes and obesity also resulted by excess
calories and macronutrients intake during pregnancy may be just as damaging as
their deficiency (Bruce 2014; Catalano and Demouzon 2015). Hence mother’s
requirement during lactation for milk production is moderately increased. The
Italian recommended dietary allowance in 2014 suggested a rise in calories as per
requirements for a total of 76,530 kilocalories during the first trimester and additional requirement of 69 kilocalories per day. Similarly, 266 kilocalories per day and
496 kilocalories per day for the second trimester and the third trimester of pregnancy is required (Società di Nutrizione Umana 2014).
24.4.1 Protein
During maternal tissue and fetal development, protein synthesis demand increases
and macronutrient such as protein needs more considerations during pregnancy,
especially during the third trimester. Negative effect on health in term of weight and
S. Hassan et al.