225
in EPA and DHA of fish is influenced by several factors, e.g. species or environment. According to Shahidi (2011), fatty fish such as mackerel, salmon or herring,
have a higher concentration of omega-3 PUFAs as compared to halibut haddock or
cod that are categorized in lean fish category. Shellfish such as crab, lobster or
shrimp, contain low levels of omega-3 PUFAs. The most well-known metabolites of
EPA are thromboxanes, 5-series leukotrienes, 3-series prostaglandins and prostacyclin (Calder 1998). Pro-thrombotic and pro-inflammatory eicosanoids resulted from
arachidonic acid are not as active as EPA-derived eicosanoids. In humans, omega-3
and omega-6 levels are dependent on the dietary consumption (Lands et al. 1992).
In cardiovascular health, PUFAs supplementation therapy remains a highly effective method in the prevention of cardiovascular disorders (Lavie et al. 2009).
The American Heart Association suggests that patients with ischemic heart disease should include approximately 1 g/day of EPA and DHA in their diet. This
dietary intervention is helpful in the general prevention of CVD (Kris-Etherton
et al. 2002). Similarly, AHA recommends that healthy people should consume fatty
fish at least 2 times/week or have a dietary intake of about 500 mg EPA and DHA/
day. In addition, ≥3–20 EPA and DHA g/day has effects on serum triglycerides
(TG), blood vessel flexibility, endothelial function, platelet aggregation, blood pressure and inflammation (Kris-Etherton et al. 2003). In their study published in The
Lancet, Thies et al. have demonstrated that the consumption of (n-3) PUFAs
enhances the stability of atherosclerotic plaques affecting the carotid arteries (Thies
et al. 2003). Moreover, Ramel et al. have shown that omega-3 PUFAs present antiobesity effects, reduce inflammation and insulin sensitivity (Ramel et al. 2010). In
obese and insulin resistant murine models, the incorporation of dietary omega-3
PUFAs into the phospholipids of the cell membrane stimulated the expression,
affinity, membrane fluidity, protein content of glucose transporter-4 in the fat tissue
(Peyron-Caso et al. 2002) as well as the expression of some insulin receptors (Das
1999), sensitizing tissues in the body to the action of insulin. Furthermore, in obese
subjects, omega-3 PUFAs can reduce the oxidation of lipids and the body mass
(Couet et al. 1997). The potential health benefits of PUFAs have also been studied
in rheumatologic disorders (rheumatoid arthritis or lupus), immunoglobulin A
nephropathy or gastrointestinal disorders (ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease)
(Volker et al. 2000; Walton et al. 1991; Belluzzi et al. 1996; Das 2005; Stenson et al.
1992; Donadio et al. 1994). Omega-3 PUFAs improve the control of satiety and the
cytokine profile (Abete et al. 2010). Moreover, omega-3 PUFAs have antiarrhythmic effects, counteract oxidative stress and reduce the risk of heart failure and sudden cardiac death (Rimm et al. 2018; Mori 2017).
13.1.3 Phospholipids
Approximately 10% of the fat from seafood comes in the form of TG and phospholipids (PLs). Several animal studies have concluded that dietary PLs could be beneficial to the human health. Phosphatidylcholine, the major component of
13 Nutritional and Health Benefits of Seafoods
in EPA and DHA of fish is influenced by several factors, e.g. species or environment. According to Shahidi (2011), fatty fish such as mackerel, salmon or herring,
have a higher concentration of omega-3 PUFAs as compared to halibut haddock or
cod that are categorized in lean fish category. Shellfish such as crab, lobster or
shrimp, contain low levels of omega-3 PUFAs. The most well-known metabolites of
EPA are thromboxanes, 5-series leukotrienes, 3-series prostaglandins and prostacyclin (Calder 1998). Pro-thrombotic and pro-inflammatory eicosanoids resulted from
arachidonic acid are not as active as EPA-derived eicosanoids. In humans, omega-3
and omega-6 levels are dependent on the dietary consumption (Lands et al. 1992).
In cardiovascular health, PUFAs supplementation therapy remains a highly effective method in the prevention of cardiovascular disorders (Lavie et al. 2009).
The American Heart Association suggests that patients with ischemic heart disease should include approximately 1 g/day of EPA and DHA in their diet. This
dietary intervention is helpful in the general prevention of CVD (Kris-Etherton
et al. 2002). Similarly, AHA recommends that healthy people should consume fatty
fish at least 2 times/week or have a dietary intake of about 500 mg EPA and DHA/
day. In addition, ≥3–20 EPA and DHA g/day has effects on serum triglycerides
(TG), blood vessel flexibility, endothelial function, platelet aggregation, blood pressure and inflammation (Kris-Etherton et al. 2003). In their study published in The
Lancet, Thies et al. have demonstrated that the consumption of (n-3) PUFAs
enhances the stability of atherosclerotic plaques affecting the carotid arteries (Thies
et al. 2003). Moreover, Ramel et al. have shown that omega-3 PUFAs present antiobesity effects, reduce inflammation and insulin sensitivity (Ramel et al. 2010). In
obese and insulin resistant murine models, the incorporation of dietary omega-3
PUFAs into the phospholipids of the cell membrane stimulated the expression,
affinity, membrane fluidity, protein content of glucose transporter-4 in the fat tissue
(Peyron-Caso et al. 2002) as well as the expression of some insulin receptors (Das
1999), sensitizing tissues in the body to the action of insulin. Furthermore, in obese
subjects, omega-3 PUFAs can reduce the oxidation of lipids and the body mass
(Couet et al. 1997). The potential health benefits of PUFAs have also been studied
in rheumatologic disorders (rheumatoid arthritis or lupus), immunoglobulin A
nephropathy or gastrointestinal disorders (ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease)
(Volker et al. 2000; Walton et al. 1991; Belluzzi et al. 1996; Das 2005; Stenson et al.
1992; Donadio et al. 1994). Omega-3 PUFAs improve the control of satiety and the
cytokine profile (Abete et al. 2010). Moreover, omega-3 PUFAs have antiarrhythmic effects, counteract oxidative stress and reduce the risk of heart failure and sudden cardiac death (Rimm et al. 2018; Mori 2017).
13.1.3 Phospholipids
Approximately 10% of the fat from seafood comes in the form of TG and phospholipids (PLs). Several animal studies have concluded that dietary PLs could be beneficial to the human health. Phosphatidylcholine, the major component of
13 Nutritional and Health Benefits of Seafoods