It is interesting to note that the CCS technology with biomass is construed as one
of the important carbon abatements technologies, aiming to remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. Functionally, the CCS technology involves three steps viz.
“capturing of CO 2 , transporting the CO 2 , and subsequently storing the CO 2 underground safely and securely in the depleted oil and gas fields and deep saline aquifer
formations”. As regards the separation of CO 2 from gases that are produced from
industrial production establishments and electricity production plants, the carbon
capture technology endeavours to capture CO 2 by pre-combustion capture, postcombustion capture, and oxyfuel combustion. The CO 2 so captured is transported by
road, tankers, ships, and pipelines to safe storage sites (CCSA 2019). The CO 2 is
stored deep inside the earth in selected “geological rock formation” or “depleted oil
and gas fields”. CO 2 is also used to enhance the oil recovery in the oil and gas fields.
Nevertheless, the commercial adoption of CCS technology involves well qualified
CCS techniques, monitoring techniques, safety regulations, and Government
regulations as well (CCSA 2019).
12.3.8 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
Hydrogen energy is one of the cleanest energy sources produced in many countries
around the world as a substitute for fossils fuels. Currently, the primary process of
producing hydrogen (H 2 ) is by cracking natural gas, steam reforming of naphtha,
which is dependent on fossil fuels. H 2 can also be produced from biomass, which is
similar to H 2 production from fossil fuels. Gasification of biomass is performed to
produce gas, consisting of H 2 , CO, and CH 4 . From the produced gas, CH 4 is
converted into H 2 and CO by being reformed with steam. Also, the efficiency of
H 2 is increased by the conversion of CO into H 2 by the water-gas shift reaction. The
gas byproduct of the process is CO 2 , but the CO 2 released from the biomass is
neutral, that is, it does not increase the CO 2 concentration in the atmosphere (Kayfeci
et al. 2019). Besides, the H 2 + CO 2 gas mixture can also be used to generate
electricity in fuel cells.
Fuel cells (FC) are electrochemical devices that generate electricity and heat using
hydrogen and hydrogen-rich fuels, together with oxygen from the air. Today, fuel
cells are considered to be an essential option for improving the sustainability of
energy use, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and reducing other emissions
related to transportation energy use. Fuel cells can be used for large and smallscale electricity generation, combined heat and power (CHP), transport of all types,
and as a battery replacement for portable power applications such as laptop
computers and mobile phones. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have the potential to reduce
greenhouse gases emissions significantly. Further, FCVs have been encouraged in
Europe, America, and Asia. For instance, in the state of California, it was reported
that transportation sector alone contributes about 40% of GHG emissions. Further,
switching over to hydrogen-fuel vehicles from gasoline powered vehicles reduce
GHG emissions to the extent of 30–60%. Additionally, toxic air pollutants are not
released from hydrogen-fuel vehicles (CEC 2019). The production volume of these
12 Renewable Energy for a Low-Carbon Future: Policy Perspectives
275
of the important carbon abatements technologies, aiming to remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. Functionally, the CCS technology involves three steps viz.
“capturing of CO 2 , transporting the CO 2 , and subsequently storing the CO 2 underground safely and securely in the depleted oil and gas fields and deep saline aquifer
formations”. As regards the separation of CO 2 from gases that are produced from
industrial production establishments and electricity production plants, the carbon
capture technology endeavours to capture CO 2 by pre-combustion capture, postcombustion capture, and oxyfuel combustion. The CO 2 so captured is transported by
road, tankers, ships, and pipelines to safe storage sites (CCSA 2019). The CO 2 is
stored deep inside the earth in selected “geological rock formation” or “depleted oil
and gas fields”. CO 2 is also used to enhance the oil recovery in the oil and gas fields.
Nevertheless, the commercial adoption of CCS technology involves well qualified
CCS techniques, monitoring techniques, safety regulations, and Government
regulations as well (CCSA 2019).
12.3.8 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
Hydrogen energy is one of the cleanest energy sources produced in many countries
around the world as a substitute for fossils fuels. Currently, the primary process of
producing hydrogen (H 2 ) is by cracking natural gas, steam reforming of naphtha,
which is dependent on fossil fuels. H 2 can also be produced from biomass, which is
similar to H 2 production from fossil fuels. Gasification of biomass is performed to
produce gas, consisting of H 2 , CO, and CH 4 . From the produced gas, CH 4 is
converted into H 2 and CO by being reformed with steam. Also, the efficiency of
H 2 is increased by the conversion of CO into H 2 by the water-gas shift reaction. The
gas byproduct of the process is CO 2 , but the CO 2 released from the biomass is
neutral, that is, it does not increase the CO 2 concentration in the atmosphere (Kayfeci
et al. 2019). Besides, the H 2 + CO 2 gas mixture can also be used to generate
electricity in fuel cells.
Fuel cells (FC) are electrochemical devices that generate electricity and heat using
hydrogen and hydrogen-rich fuels, together with oxygen from the air. Today, fuel
cells are considered to be an essential option for improving the sustainability of
energy use, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and reducing other emissions
related to transportation energy use. Fuel cells can be used for large and smallscale electricity generation, combined heat and power (CHP), transport of all types,
and as a battery replacement for portable power applications such as laptop
computers and mobile phones. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have the potential to reduce
greenhouse gases emissions significantly. Further, FCVs have been encouraged in
Europe, America, and Asia. For instance, in the state of California, it was reported
that transportation sector alone contributes about 40% of GHG emissions. Further,
switching over to hydrogen-fuel vehicles from gasoline powered vehicles reduce
GHG emissions to the extent of 30–60%. Additionally, toxic air pollutants are not
released from hydrogen-fuel vehicles (CEC 2019). The production volume of these
12 Renewable Energy for a Low-Carbon Future: Policy Perspectives
275