High rainfall and cloudy weather during flowering cause flower drop and low
fruit set. High rainfall during full bloom may affect pollination by pollen washout
and also reduced activity of pollinators (Rajan 2012). Rainfall and hail storms during
the maturation of the fruit may affect fruit quality and increase fruit drop, ultimately
resulting in reduced yield. High humidity and unseasonal rain during fruit maturity
invites severe attacks by insects, pests, and diseases, fruit fly, anthracnose, and
mango stone weevil (Makhmale et al. 2016). With temperature increase from 20 to
35
C, attacks of fruit fly increased in mango cv. Chausa (Kumar and Shukla 2010).
Spongy tissue, mostly occurring in cv. Alphonso mango, is induced by high
temperature buildup within the fruits (Makhmale et al. 2016).
Grape (Vitis vinifera)
Climate change has significant effects on the grape and wine industry. Approximately more than 10,000 grape cultivars are known in the Vitiaceae alone, showing
wider biological diversity (Mullins et al. 1992). Warmer temperatures extend the
period of physiological maturity and hence augment metabolic rates and affect
metabolite accumulation. Above 30
C, berry size and weight are reduced and
metabolic activities and accumulation of sugar may stop (Coombe 1987; Hale and
Buttrose 1974), although elevated temperatures accelerate berry maturation, and also
affect final sugar accumulation. Higher temperatures (30
C) may lead to suspended
solid concentrations, and also increase Brix levels more than 24–25 Brix, not for the
photosynthesis and transportation of sugar concentration from leaves, but for evaporative loss (Keller 2009, 2010). Flavonoids have an important role for the quality of
grape and wine. Temperature has been shown to have a direct and important role for
their formation. Low temperatures (14/9
C day/night) are not conducive to develop
anthocyanin concentrations, and temperatures of 30
C or more also hamper lower
anthocyanin synthesis (Spayd et al. 2002; Tarara et al. 2008). Rainfall at the time of
blooming and temperatures below 15
C and above 32
C severely pollen germination, fertilization, and fruit set. High humidity after pruning of 30–110 days favours
fungal disease development such as powdery mildew or anthracnose in warm areas.
Other climate change factors likely to influence grape production are related to
pest and disease attack as well as the new vectors responsible for disease spread. The
distribution of glassy-winged sharpshooter is highly temperature dependent, and
with rising winter temperature their infestation is shifted towards high (Daugherty
et al. 2009). Climate change may modify the complex interrelationships between
vine and pest development, such as the vector of phytoplasma grapevine disease,
Scaphoideus titanus (Stock et al. 2005), which is at an advantage in warmer
viticulture regions.
84
T. Sarkar et al.
fruit set. High rainfall during full bloom may affect pollination by pollen washout
and also reduced activity of pollinators (Rajan 2012). Rainfall and hail storms during
the maturation of the fruit may affect fruit quality and increase fruit drop, ultimately
resulting in reduced yield. High humidity and unseasonal rain during fruit maturity
invites severe attacks by insects, pests, and diseases, fruit fly, anthracnose, and
mango stone weevil (Makhmale et al. 2016). With temperature increase from 20 to
35
C, attacks of fruit fly increased in mango cv. Chausa (Kumar and Shukla 2010).
Spongy tissue, mostly occurring in cv. Alphonso mango, is induced by high
temperature buildup within the fruits (Makhmale et al. 2016).
Grape (Vitis vinifera)
Climate change has significant effects on the grape and wine industry. Approximately more than 10,000 grape cultivars are known in the Vitiaceae alone, showing
wider biological diversity (Mullins et al. 1992). Warmer temperatures extend the
period of physiological maturity and hence augment metabolic rates and affect
metabolite accumulation. Above 30
C, berry size and weight are reduced and
metabolic activities and accumulation of sugar may stop (Coombe 1987; Hale and
Buttrose 1974), although elevated temperatures accelerate berry maturation, and also
affect final sugar accumulation. Higher temperatures (30
C) may lead to suspended
solid concentrations, and also increase Brix levels more than 24–25 Brix, not for the
photosynthesis and transportation of sugar concentration from leaves, but for evaporative loss (Keller 2009, 2010). Flavonoids have an important role for the quality of
grape and wine. Temperature has been shown to have a direct and important role for
their formation. Low temperatures (14/9
C day/night) are not conducive to develop
anthocyanin concentrations, and temperatures of 30
C or more also hamper lower
anthocyanin synthesis (Spayd et al. 2002; Tarara et al. 2008). Rainfall at the time of
blooming and temperatures below 15
C and above 32
C severely pollen germination, fertilization, and fruit set. High humidity after pruning of 30–110 days favours
fungal disease development such as powdery mildew or anthracnose in warm areas.
Other climate change factors likely to influence grape production are related to
pest and disease attack as well as the new vectors responsible for disease spread. The
distribution of glassy-winged sharpshooter is highly temperature dependent, and
with rising winter temperature their infestation is shifted towards high (Daugherty
et al. 2009). Climate change may modify the complex interrelationships between
vine and pest development, such as the vector of phytoplasma grapevine disease,
Scaphoideus titanus (Stock et al. 2005), which is at an advantage in warmer
viticulture regions.
84
T. Sarkar et al.