17% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP), and feeds 1.3 billion people.
India is situated roughly between 20
N and 20
S as a tropical area; the monsoon
mechanism is greatly influenced by the differential heating and cooling of land and
water. The periodic change in pressure conditions over the Indian Ocean is
connected with El Nino
4 , causing a negative pressure difference known as the
Southern Oscillation (SO) that affects the monsoon pattern; this phenomenon is
referred to as ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillations). Any small deviation in the
monsoon rains causes huge damage to the country’s economy.
India receives much of its rainfall from June to September every year, known as
the Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR). Approximately 80% of annual rainfall
during June–September is the annual cycle of more than 44 regions (Singh et al.
2019), with a key role in the country’s economy. ISMR exhibits large spatiotemporal
variation (Revadekar et al. 2018), making it more accountable for climate change
studies. The impacts of climate change have decreased the intensity and occurrence
of the ISMR, and its distribution has become more extreme. The declining ISMR
tendency is dependent on the weakening of the easterly jet stream
5 and the southern
oscillation, besides warming of the equatorial Indian Ocean, more than northern
latitudes of the tropics, thus affecting the sea surface temperature gradient around the
equatorial region (Naidu et al. 2009). An increase in surface temperature has already
adversely affected Indian crop yields (Sedova and Kalkuhl 2020), as well as
imposing restrictions on water supply, industry, and associated activities to impede
the economy. This problem needs to be accounted for and addressed through
regional projections to implement critical adaptation and policy framing
(Shashikanth et al. 2013).
Because of global warming, the country has become calamity prone. Of 35 states,
27 states are prone to the aftereffects of global warming. Recent studies by the
scientific community accept the major role of anthropogenic activity as the primary
cause of global warming and climate change for the twentieth century
(Madhusoodhanan et al. 2017). An investigation on 12 Indian river basins by
Gosain et al. (2006) using HadRM2 climate data under current and probable future
emission of GHG shows severe flood and drought will result during the twenty-first
century. Unsustainable use of land and water, rapid urbanization, economic growth,
and poor infrastructure pose serious threats to India’s natural resources. Economic
development influences the consumption pattern and leads to increasing demands for
land, water, and food. As a result, water resource sectors in India since the 1970s are
greatly influenced by competition from allied sectors. India exhibits diverse weather
conditions, and the impacts of climate change exhibit complex diversity with many
4 El Nino is a Spanish word meaning ‘the child,’ referring to the baby Christ because it starts flowing
during Christmas. This name is assigned to the periodic development of a warm ocean current along
the coast of Peru to temporarily replace the cold Peruvian current. The presence of El Nino causes
an increase in sea surface temperature and weakening of the trade wind in the region.
5 Jet streams are the narrow belt of high altitude (above 12,000 m) westerly winds in the troposphere.
Mid-latitude and subtropical jet streams are the most constant jet streams with speed approximately
110 km/h during summer to about 184 km/h in winter.
20
N. S. Patil and R. S. Laddimath
India is situated roughly between 20
N and 20
S as a tropical area; the monsoon
mechanism is greatly influenced by the differential heating and cooling of land and
water. The periodic change in pressure conditions over the Indian Ocean is
connected with El Nino
4 , causing a negative pressure difference known as the
Southern Oscillation (SO) that affects the monsoon pattern; this phenomenon is
referred to as ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillations). Any small deviation in the
monsoon rains causes huge damage to the country’s economy.
India receives much of its rainfall from June to September every year, known as
the Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR). Approximately 80% of annual rainfall
during June–September is the annual cycle of more than 44 regions (Singh et al.
2019), with a key role in the country’s economy. ISMR exhibits large spatiotemporal
variation (Revadekar et al. 2018), making it more accountable for climate change
studies. The impacts of climate change have decreased the intensity and occurrence
of the ISMR, and its distribution has become more extreme. The declining ISMR
tendency is dependent on the weakening of the easterly jet stream
5 and the southern
oscillation, besides warming of the equatorial Indian Ocean, more than northern
latitudes of the tropics, thus affecting the sea surface temperature gradient around the
equatorial region (Naidu et al. 2009). An increase in surface temperature has already
adversely affected Indian crop yields (Sedova and Kalkuhl 2020), as well as
imposing restrictions on water supply, industry, and associated activities to impede
the economy. This problem needs to be accounted for and addressed through
regional projections to implement critical adaptation and policy framing
(Shashikanth et al. 2013).
Because of global warming, the country has become calamity prone. Of 35 states,
27 states are prone to the aftereffects of global warming. Recent studies by the
scientific community accept the major role of anthropogenic activity as the primary
cause of global warming and climate change for the twentieth century
(Madhusoodhanan et al. 2017). An investigation on 12 Indian river basins by
Gosain et al. (2006) using HadRM2 climate data under current and probable future
emission of GHG shows severe flood and drought will result during the twenty-first
century. Unsustainable use of land and water, rapid urbanization, economic growth,
and poor infrastructure pose serious threats to India’s natural resources. Economic
development influences the consumption pattern and leads to increasing demands for
land, water, and food. As a result, water resource sectors in India since the 1970s are
greatly influenced by competition from allied sectors. India exhibits diverse weather
conditions, and the impacts of climate change exhibit complex diversity with many
4 El Nino is a Spanish word meaning ‘the child,’ referring to the baby Christ because it starts flowing
during Christmas. This name is assigned to the periodic development of a warm ocean current along
the coast of Peru to temporarily replace the cold Peruvian current. The presence of El Nino causes
an increase in sea surface temperature and weakening of the trade wind in the region.
5 Jet streams are the narrow belt of high altitude (above 12,000 m) westerly winds in the troposphere.
Mid-latitude and subtropical jet streams are the most constant jet streams with speed approximately
110 km/h during summer to about 184 km/h in winter.
20
N. S. Patil and R. S. Laddimath