adaptation and early warning systems may help reduce flood vulnerability in
Nigeria.
The Indian coastline, stretching over 7516 km, is the home of nearly 500 million
people. This coastal stretch is dynamic and varies in physiographical characteristics,
which increases its vulnerability to disasters (Sudha Rani et al. 2015; Sahana et al.
2019b; Rehman et al. 2020). Tropical cyclones are destructive in Indian coastal
areas. The cyclones Idai, Fani, and Bulbul collectively led to economic losses of
more than USD 14 billion (Aon 2020). The Indian Sundarban Biosphere Reserve
(SBR), being the world’s largest mangrove ecosystem, is fragile to varied impacts by
climatic stressors. This region has evolved by three major river systems, the Ganga–
Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) Rivers. The vulnerability of this deltaic ecosystem is
high because of large population concentrations, low gradient, the complex river
network, and supporting many species of fauna and flora (Sahana and Sajjad 2019).
Most of the people are engaged in agriculture and fishing activities, which are
adversely affected by cyclone, flood, storm surge, and sea level rise (Sahana et al.
2020a). Climate variability has also magnified the frequency of extreme weather
events in the SBR, and thus effective adaptation strategies are urgently required for
lessening the vulnerability of the SBR coastal communities (Sahana et al. 2019a,
2020b). Although a large volume of research has focused on vulnerability to climate
change-induced disasters in the Reserve, no comprehensive disaster adaptation
framework has appeared. This chapter aims to seek better insight for adaptation
strategies at the household level in the Reserve.
Methods and Materials
Study Area
The Sundarban Biosphere Reserve (SBR) is located in the lower part of the Ganga–
Brahmaputra–Meghna delta. It spreads over an area of 9630 km
2 and is bounded by
the Dampier Hodges line in the north, the Bay of Bengal in the south, the Hooghly
estuary in the west, and the Ichamati–Raimangal River in the east. It covers the
South and North 24 Parganas districts of West Bengal extending over 21
31
0 N and
22
30
0 N latitude and 88
10
0 E and 89
51
0 E longitude (Fig. 5.1). Of the total islands
in the Reserve, 48 islands are uninhabited, covered by mangrove forest, and
54 islands are inhabited (Fig. 5.1). Most of the Reserve consists of low-lying alluvial
mudflats, tidal creeks, and multiple river channels (Sahana et al. 2016). The Gangetic
deltaic region was formed in the Late Quaternary Period (2500–5000 years ago) by
deposition of sediments brought by the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna Rivers
(Allison et al. 2003). The SBR can be divided into a core zone (1692 km
2 ), a buffer
zone (2233 km
2 ), and a transition zone (5705 km
2 ). The Reserve was badly hit by
cyclone Aila during 2009, a cyclone identified as one of the most dramatic climatic
disasters that occurred in Indian Sundarban (Danda 2010). The islands located in the
extreme southern part of Sundarban are affected by sea level rise and storm surge
102
M. Sahana et al.
Nigeria.
The Indian coastline, stretching over 7516 km, is the home of nearly 500 million
people. This coastal stretch is dynamic and varies in physiographical characteristics,
which increases its vulnerability to disasters (Sudha Rani et al. 2015; Sahana et al.
2019b; Rehman et al. 2020). Tropical cyclones are destructive in Indian coastal
areas. The cyclones Idai, Fani, and Bulbul collectively led to economic losses of
more than USD 14 billion (Aon 2020). The Indian Sundarban Biosphere Reserve
(SBR), being the world’s largest mangrove ecosystem, is fragile to varied impacts by
climatic stressors. This region has evolved by three major river systems, the Ganga–
Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) Rivers. The vulnerability of this deltaic ecosystem is
high because of large population concentrations, low gradient, the complex river
network, and supporting many species of fauna and flora (Sahana and Sajjad 2019).
Most of the people are engaged in agriculture and fishing activities, which are
adversely affected by cyclone, flood, storm surge, and sea level rise (Sahana et al.
2020a). Climate variability has also magnified the frequency of extreme weather
events in the SBR, and thus effective adaptation strategies are urgently required for
lessening the vulnerability of the SBR coastal communities (Sahana et al. 2019a,
2020b). Although a large volume of research has focused on vulnerability to climate
change-induced disasters in the Reserve, no comprehensive disaster adaptation
framework has appeared. This chapter aims to seek better insight for adaptation
strategies at the household level in the Reserve.
Methods and Materials
Study Area
The Sundarban Biosphere Reserve (SBR) is located in the lower part of the Ganga–
Brahmaputra–Meghna delta. It spreads over an area of 9630 km
2 and is bounded by
the Dampier Hodges line in the north, the Bay of Bengal in the south, the Hooghly
estuary in the west, and the Ichamati–Raimangal River in the east. It covers the
South and North 24 Parganas districts of West Bengal extending over 21
31
0 N and
22
30
0 N latitude and 88
10
0 E and 89
51
0 E longitude (Fig. 5.1). Of the total islands
in the Reserve, 48 islands are uninhabited, covered by mangrove forest, and
54 islands are inhabited (Fig. 5.1). Most of the Reserve consists of low-lying alluvial
mudflats, tidal creeks, and multiple river channels (Sahana et al. 2016). The Gangetic
deltaic region was formed in the Late Quaternary Period (2500–5000 years ago) by
deposition of sediments brought by the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna Rivers
(Allison et al. 2003). The SBR can be divided into a core zone (1692 km
2 ), a buffer
zone (2233 km
2 ), and a transition zone (5705 km
2 ). The Reserve was badly hit by
cyclone Aila during 2009, a cyclone identified as one of the most dramatic climatic
disasters that occurred in Indian Sundarban (Danda 2010). The islands located in the
extreme southern part of Sundarban are affected by sea level rise and storm surge
102
M. Sahana et al.