In natural systems, the process of adjustment to actual climate and its effects; human
intervention may facilitate adjustment to expected climate and its effects.” Adaptation constitutes an essential part of policy formulation for reducing vulnerability to
climate change. Although various activities and programs on adaptation have been
carried out, turning these processes into action is slow (Swart et al. 2014). The Paris
Agreement on climate change stressed its causes and consequences. The coastal
areas globally are under severe risks from many coastal developmental processes,
pollution, overfishing, loss of habitat, and other anthropogenic activities (USAID
2009). The Paris Agreement calls for reducing the emission of GHGs and investing
in adaptation (UNFCCC 2015). Adaptation may guide humans toward resilience
pathways, especially among the vulnerable coastal communities. Increase in GHG
emissions and alteration in rainfall and temperature patterns may have implications
for the coastal areas, causing ocean acidification, erosion, sea level rise, storm
surges, and coastal flooding. Hence, effective adaptation is required to lessen the
impacts of these changes and hazards among the coastal communities.
Various attempts have been made by scholars to assess adaptation to climate
change in deltaic ecosystems (Maru et al. 2014; Houghton et al. 2017; de Campos
et al. 2020). Ahammed and Pandey (2019) examined vulnerability to cyclones in the
eastern coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, India, using a coastal social vulnerability
index. These authors suggested that improvement in early warning systems and
coastal infrastructure may help reduce vulnerability in the coastal communities.
Mallick et al. (2009) examined individual level adaptation strategies in coastal
Bangladesh, using several research methods to analyze household level adaptation
in surveyed villages. Ahamed (2013) examined the adaptation strategies in coastal
Bangladesh using a community-based approach. His findings revealed that lack of
financial resources and physical location are the major factors of vulnerability in this
area. Onyeneke et al. (2020) analyzed the adaptation strategies for fish farmers in the
Niger Delta using instrumental variable regression. Their findings indicated that
increased adaptation among farmers has also increased the returns from fish farming.
Baills et al. (2020) reviewed various adaptation measures in coastal areas using
multicriteria analysis and suggested that indicators should be independent of area for
easy comparison. It can be seen that studies have highlighted the importance of
adaptation for lessening vulnerability and increasing livelihood opportunities for the
coastal communities. Improvement of early warning systems, infrastructural development, strengthening local government institutions, flexible fisheries management,
and an integrative approach have been identified as some efficacious adaptive
measures for coastal communities (Gopalakrishnan et al. 2018; Ahammed and
Pandey 2019; Greenan et al. 2019; Nichols et al. 2019). Early warning systems
aim at reducing vulnerability to disasters at varied spatial scales. An effective early
warning system should be timely, continuous, flexible, and transparent, integrating
the community and constituting adequate human capacity (Kelman and Glantz
2014). Lack of an early warning system was identified as an important factor causing
vulnerability in coastal areas (Oo et al. 2018). Losses caused by cyclones can be
reduced through early warning systems in deltas (DECCMA 2017; Kuenzer and
Renaud 2012). Ogundele and Ubaekwe (2019) advocated that ecosystem-based
5 Evaluating Adaptation Strategies to Coastal Multihazards in Sundarban. . .
101
intervention may facilitate adjustment to expected climate and its effects.” Adaptation constitutes an essential part of policy formulation for reducing vulnerability to
climate change. Although various activities and programs on adaptation have been
carried out, turning these processes into action is slow (Swart et al. 2014). The Paris
Agreement on climate change stressed its causes and consequences. The coastal
areas globally are under severe risks from many coastal developmental processes,
pollution, overfishing, loss of habitat, and other anthropogenic activities (USAID
2009). The Paris Agreement calls for reducing the emission of GHGs and investing
in adaptation (UNFCCC 2015). Adaptation may guide humans toward resilience
pathways, especially among the vulnerable coastal communities. Increase in GHG
emissions and alteration in rainfall and temperature patterns may have implications
for the coastal areas, causing ocean acidification, erosion, sea level rise, storm
surges, and coastal flooding. Hence, effective adaptation is required to lessen the
impacts of these changes and hazards among the coastal communities.
Various attempts have been made by scholars to assess adaptation to climate
change in deltaic ecosystems (Maru et al. 2014; Houghton et al. 2017; de Campos
et al. 2020). Ahammed and Pandey (2019) examined vulnerability to cyclones in the
eastern coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, India, using a coastal social vulnerability
index. These authors suggested that improvement in early warning systems and
coastal infrastructure may help reduce vulnerability in the coastal communities.
Mallick et al. (2009) examined individual level adaptation strategies in coastal
Bangladesh, using several research methods to analyze household level adaptation
in surveyed villages. Ahamed (2013) examined the adaptation strategies in coastal
Bangladesh using a community-based approach. His findings revealed that lack of
financial resources and physical location are the major factors of vulnerability in this
area. Onyeneke et al. (2020) analyzed the adaptation strategies for fish farmers in the
Niger Delta using instrumental variable regression. Their findings indicated that
increased adaptation among farmers has also increased the returns from fish farming.
Baills et al. (2020) reviewed various adaptation measures in coastal areas using
multicriteria analysis and suggested that indicators should be independent of area for
easy comparison. It can be seen that studies have highlighted the importance of
adaptation for lessening vulnerability and increasing livelihood opportunities for the
coastal communities. Improvement of early warning systems, infrastructural development, strengthening local government institutions, flexible fisheries management,
and an integrative approach have been identified as some efficacious adaptive
measures for coastal communities (Gopalakrishnan et al. 2018; Ahammed and
Pandey 2019; Greenan et al. 2019; Nichols et al. 2019). Early warning systems
aim at reducing vulnerability to disasters at varied spatial scales. An effective early
warning system should be timely, continuous, flexible, and transparent, integrating
the community and constituting adequate human capacity (Kelman and Glantz
2014). Lack of an early warning system was identified as an important factor causing
vulnerability in coastal areas (Oo et al. 2018). Losses caused by cyclones can be
reduced through early warning systems in deltas (DECCMA 2017; Kuenzer and
Renaud 2012). Ogundele and Ubaekwe (2019) advocated that ecosystem-based
5 Evaluating Adaptation Strategies to Coastal Multihazards in Sundarban. . .
101