Some of the heavy metals regulated by the
EU air quality standards will be described below.
The main arsenic sources in nature are ore
deposits and volcanic activity. Anthropogenic
emissions come mainly from metal smelters and
fuel combustion [56].
Arsenic is mainly deposited on fine particles
(PM 2.5 ). It can be associated with various longterm effects in humans including irritation of the
respiratory system, cardiovascular disease, and
neurological effects, especially for occupational
exposure, e.g., smelter workers [57].
Cadmium occurs predominantly in association
with sulfide and zinc ores. It is released naturally
into the atmosphere by volcanic eruptions, forest
fires, and vegetation. Additionally, it is emitted as
a by-product of zinc, lead, and copper production
process as well as the combustion of fossil fuels.
Furthermore, cigarette smoke is an important cadmium source [55]. The majority of produced cadmium was used in the past for Ni-Cd battery
production, but recently they have largely been
replaced by Li-ion and Ni-MH (nickel-metal
hydride) batteries. Cadmium can be found predominantly in fine particles and hence has a predisposition for long-range transport. Chronic
exposure to cadmium can result in osteoporosis
as a consequence of changes in calcium metabolism and airway diseases [58]. Cadmium is also
accumulated in the human body, especially in the
kidneys, leading to kidney damage [55].
Natural emissions sources of nickel include
soils, vegetation, forest fires, and volcanic activity. Man-made emissions consist mainly of combustion, metallurgy, and nickel primary
production (mining, grinding, smelting). Nickel
often shows a significant association with coarse
particles, and up to 30% of total nickel emission
can be found near its source. Data on chronic Ni
exposure in humans is rather scarce and involves
predominantly dermal exposure and allergic reactions [55]. However, recent studies find an association between cardiopulmonary diseases and
PM-deposited nickel species [59].
Lead is released into the atmosphere by natural
processes including volcanic eruption, forest fires,
and biogenic sources. Anthropogenic emissions
are related mainly to fossil fuel combustion as
well as iron and steel production. Lead in the
atmosphere is bound to a fine particular matter
which tends to be associated with long-range
transport. This can explain the presence of lead
in polar regions [46]. Atmospheric lead levels in
Europe have decreased significantly during the
last few decades. Airborne lead is currently a
minor exposure pathway; however, before it was
banned from petrol, transportation was a major
source of lead exposure, especially in heavy traffic
areas. Long-term exposure to lead decreases cognitive performance in both adults and children and
leads to anemia, increase in blood pressure, and
reduced fertility in males. Infants and young children are especially sensitive to even a low level of
lead, which may result in a decrease in IQ and
behavioral problems [60].
Economic Analysis
Economics and Policies
Industry is a pillar of the world economy. It transforms raw materials into consumer goods and is a
driving force for the economy of both low- and
high-income countries. From 2000 to 2013, the
world average value added from manufacturing
(VAM) decreased from 19.2% to 16.3%. This
trend is attributed to the shift in the world’s economy from the industrial sector to more serviceoriented sectors and the so-called information
economy. However, CO 2 emissions didn’t follow
the trend of VAM; on the contrary, they are
increasing [61].
The relationship between economic growth
and environmental degradation has been studied
for many years and is strongly debated. The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis was
introduced as an attempt to describe the relationship between environmental pressure (e.g., air
pollution) and economic growth (income per
capita). The hypothesis assumes an inverse
U curve relationship between the two variables
divided into three phases, distinguished by different growth levels of the economies (Fig. 1). In the
first phase, low CO 2 emissions per capita are
related to low levels of industrial activity. However, rapid development and extensive production
482
Industrial Emissions Control Technologies: Introduction
EU air quality standards will be described below.
The main arsenic sources in nature are ore
deposits and volcanic activity. Anthropogenic
emissions come mainly from metal smelters and
fuel combustion [56].
Arsenic is mainly deposited on fine particles
(PM 2.5 ). It can be associated with various longterm effects in humans including irritation of the
respiratory system, cardiovascular disease, and
neurological effects, especially for occupational
exposure, e.g., smelter workers [57].
Cadmium occurs predominantly in association
with sulfide and zinc ores. It is released naturally
into the atmosphere by volcanic eruptions, forest
fires, and vegetation. Additionally, it is emitted as
a by-product of zinc, lead, and copper production
process as well as the combustion of fossil fuels.
Furthermore, cigarette smoke is an important cadmium source [55]. The majority of produced cadmium was used in the past for Ni-Cd battery
production, but recently they have largely been
replaced by Li-ion and Ni-MH (nickel-metal
hydride) batteries. Cadmium can be found predominantly in fine particles and hence has a predisposition for long-range transport. Chronic
exposure to cadmium can result in osteoporosis
as a consequence of changes in calcium metabolism and airway diseases [58]. Cadmium is also
accumulated in the human body, especially in the
kidneys, leading to kidney damage [55].
Natural emissions sources of nickel include
soils, vegetation, forest fires, and volcanic activity. Man-made emissions consist mainly of combustion, metallurgy, and nickel primary
production (mining, grinding, smelting). Nickel
often shows a significant association with coarse
particles, and up to 30% of total nickel emission
can be found near its source. Data on chronic Ni
exposure in humans is rather scarce and involves
predominantly dermal exposure and allergic reactions [55]. However, recent studies find an association between cardiopulmonary diseases and
PM-deposited nickel species [59].
Lead is released into the atmosphere by natural
processes including volcanic eruption, forest fires,
and biogenic sources. Anthropogenic emissions
are related mainly to fossil fuel combustion as
well as iron and steel production. Lead in the
atmosphere is bound to a fine particular matter
which tends to be associated with long-range
transport. This can explain the presence of lead
in polar regions [46]. Atmospheric lead levels in
Europe have decreased significantly during the
last few decades. Airborne lead is currently a
minor exposure pathway; however, before it was
banned from petrol, transportation was a major
source of lead exposure, especially in heavy traffic
areas. Long-term exposure to lead decreases cognitive performance in both adults and children and
leads to anemia, increase in blood pressure, and
reduced fertility in males. Infants and young children are especially sensitive to even a low level of
lead, which may result in a decrease in IQ and
behavioral problems [60].
Economic Analysis
Economics and Policies
Industry is a pillar of the world economy. It transforms raw materials into consumer goods and is a
driving force for the economy of both low- and
high-income countries. From 2000 to 2013, the
world average value added from manufacturing
(VAM) decreased from 19.2% to 16.3%. This
trend is attributed to the shift in the world’s economy from the industrial sector to more serviceoriented sectors and the so-called information
economy. However, CO 2 emissions didn’t follow
the trend of VAM; on the contrary, they are
increasing [61].
The relationship between economic growth
and environmental degradation has been studied
for many years and is strongly debated. The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis was
introduced as an attempt to describe the relationship between environmental pressure (e.g., air
pollution) and economic growth (income per
capita). The hypothesis assumes an inverse
U curve relationship between the two variables
divided into three phases, distinguished by different growth levels of the economies (Fig. 1). In the
first phase, low CO 2 emissions per capita are
related to low levels of industrial activity. However, rapid development and extensive production
482
Industrial Emissions Control Technologies: Introduction