heatwaves cannot be defined without reference to
the human condition. The relevance of these indices in non-health applications is of interest as
these indices are analyzed.
Heatwave Impacts
As highlighted, existing heatwave indices have
often been tailored to consider the vulnerabilities
of the individual sectors, such that realized
heatwave impacts on different sectors are most
accurately indicated by the appropriate index. In
order to inform the design of the risk management
framework as well as provide insight into its
application, an understanding of the impacts of
heatwaves upon different sectors should be
developed.
The impacts of heatwaves are recognized by
many sector experts, as surveyed by Forzieri et al.
[34], summarized in Table 2. The coverage of
such impacts in literature lags the views expressed
in Table 2, as shown in the subsequent sectorbased analysis of the impacts of heatwaves.
Figure 1 demonstrates the range of sectors which
heatwaves impact, which are individually considered ahead (referred to as impact diagrams). These
diagrams only incorporate impacts which are
supported by a reference to literature.
Health Sector
Excess mortality due to heatwaves, especially in
vulnerable populations, is a well-identified impact
of heatwaves [32, 35–38]. Between 1844 and 2010
extreme heat events were responsible for a higher
death total than all other natural hazards combined
[36]. Long-duration, high-temperature events are
seen to have the largest mortality effects [39]. Heatrelated deaths are seen to be increasing over time
[35]. Heatwaves occurring earlier in the summer
season were seen to cause greater impact than those
occurring later [39]. Despite taking such a focus in
research, health impacts due to heatwaves often go
undetected [40] or are underreported [4, 41].
A large number of demographics have been
identified as increasing vulnerability to heatwaves
including gender [32], age [32], socioeconomic
status [42, 43], and those with pre-existing medical
conditions [37]. Heatwaves are identified to have
exacerbated impacts on people suffering from mental health disorders [30]. The accessibility and
affordability of air conditioning in combatting
adverse heat-related health impacts are of particular
importance [44]. During the 2003 heatwave in
Portugal, it was found that the use of air conditioning systems in intensive care units led to a 40%
reduction of deaths, when compared to units which
did not have air conditioning systems (Instituto
Nacional de Saúde, cited in [32]). The concept of
energy poverty with respect to being able to afford
energy requirements is outlined and linked to
health impacts during heatwaves due to air conditioning affordability [42].
Occupational health impacts of heatwaves are
of economic consequence, where work-related
ambulance call outs and compensation claims
increased during heatwave events [45, 46]. It is
identified that the impact of delays and other
implications with regard to public transport
could greatly impact an individual who relies on
this service to fulfil activities that allow them to
have access to such necessities as critical medical
assistance and medicine [47].
Figure 2 below describes the range of impacts
extreme heat events have on the health sector.
Note the external drivers affecting the observed
impacts, with some relating to heatwave impacts
upon other sectors. These have been color coded
depending on which sector the drivers stem from
and have corresponding dashed line arrows. This
highlights the interdependencies between different heatwave-impacted sectors. Note, this color
coding scheme has been used throughout the
review for all related impact diagrams.
Built Environments
Within buildings and structures, heatwaves can
cause stresses due to thermal expansion in concrete, steel, and insulated glass units. Problems
with protective finishes have also been
reported [48].
Thermal conditions indoors can be poorer than
those outdoors during heatwaves [49], depending
on how heat resilience is considered in building
Measuring Heatwaves and Their Impacts
463
the human condition. The relevance of these indices in non-health applications is of interest as
these indices are analyzed.
Heatwave Impacts
As highlighted, existing heatwave indices have
often been tailored to consider the vulnerabilities
of the individual sectors, such that realized
heatwave impacts on different sectors are most
accurately indicated by the appropriate index. In
order to inform the design of the risk management
framework as well as provide insight into its
application, an understanding of the impacts of
heatwaves upon different sectors should be
developed.
The impacts of heatwaves are recognized by
many sector experts, as surveyed by Forzieri et al.
[34], summarized in Table 2. The coverage of
such impacts in literature lags the views expressed
in Table 2, as shown in the subsequent sectorbased analysis of the impacts of heatwaves.
Figure 1 demonstrates the range of sectors which
heatwaves impact, which are individually considered ahead (referred to as impact diagrams). These
diagrams only incorporate impacts which are
supported by a reference to literature.
Health Sector
Excess mortality due to heatwaves, especially in
vulnerable populations, is a well-identified impact
of heatwaves [32, 35–38]. Between 1844 and 2010
extreme heat events were responsible for a higher
death total than all other natural hazards combined
[36]. Long-duration, high-temperature events are
seen to have the largest mortality effects [39]. Heatrelated deaths are seen to be increasing over time
[35]. Heatwaves occurring earlier in the summer
season were seen to cause greater impact than those
occurring later [39]. Despite taking such a focus in
research, health impacts due to heatwaves often go
undetected [40] or are underreported [4, 41].
A large number of demographics have been
identified as increasing vulnerability to heatwaves
including gender [32], age [32], socioeconomic
status [42, 43], and those with pre-existing medical
conditions [37]. Heatwaves are identified to have
exacerbated impacts on people suffering from mental health disorders [30]. The accessibility and
affordability of air conditioning in combatting
adverse heat-related health impacts are of particular
importance [44]. During the 2003 heatwave in
Portugal, it was found that the use of air conditioning systems in intensive care units led to a 40%
reduction of deaths, when compared to units which
did not have air conditioning systems (Instituto
Nacional de Saúde, cited in [32]). The concept of
energy poverty with respect to being able to afford
energy requirements is outlined and linked to
health impacts during heatwaves due to air conditioning affordability [42].
Occupational health impacts of heatwaves are
of economic consequence, where work-related
ambulance call outs and compensation claims
increased during heatwave events [45, 46]. It is
identified that the impact of delays and other
implications with regard to public transport
could greatly impact an individual who relies on
this service to fulfil activities that allow them to
have access to such necessities as critical medical
assistance and medicine [47].
Figure 2 below describes the range of impacts
extreme heat events have on the health sector.
Note the external drivers affecting the observed
impacts, with some relating to heatwave impacts
upon other sectors. These have been color coded
depending on which sector the drivers stem from
and have corresponding dashed line arrows. This
highlights the interdependencies between different heatwave-impacted sectors. Note, this color
coding scheme has been used throughout the
review for all related impact diagrams.
Built Environments
Within buildings and structures, heatwaves can
cause stresses due to thermal expansion in concrete, steel, and insulated glass units. Problems
with protective finishes have also been
reported [48].
Thermal conditions indoors can be poorer than
those outdoors during heatwaves [49], depending
on how heat resilience is considered in building
Measuring Heatwaves and Their Impacts
463