directed toward responding to arguments
attempting to justify the continued use of polluting energy technologies [239]. There are three
important directions for future research. First, scientists should continue to develop environmentally beneficial energy technologies (e.g., solar,
wind, hydro energies) using life cycle analysis to
detail their environmental impact. Second, environmental ethicist should create a strong normative framework for our energy use. Third, leaders
need to better understand how to “use ethics to
motivate people to end dirty energy” ([239],
p. 401). The reasons for the dominating role of
dirty energy are complex (energy subsidies, ease,
infrastructure, stranded assets), and an incisive
description of the problem is central to solving
it. This effort would benefit from scientists, ethicists, and psychologists working together to
develop technologies that help individuals understand and act based on their personal ethics and
responsibilities.
Climate change is happening now and will
only become worse with time if the mitigation
goals are not met (i.e., if Paris Agreement [240]
goals are not met, the Earth’s system will go
beyond a tipping point [241], at which climate
change becomes largely irreversible). Therefore,
adaptation strategies become increasingly relevant. Further research on environmentally sustainable adaptation technologies will become
increasingly important. In addition it is crucial to
evaluate the relative effects (both ecological and
social) of adaptation technologies.
As the Earth system is nearing many tipping
points under global warming (e.g., accelerated Arctic sea ice loss; increasing sea level rise; increasing
deforestation of the rainforests in Amazon;
vanishing coral reefs; extinction of species [10]),
research is necessary to further understand the ecological tipping points and the implications of crossing them [241]. Furthermore, the future of some
fields of ecology such as ecological restoration will
be critically impacted by climate change. Research
is therefore needed to understand how these fields
can best adapt to this challenge. For instance, further development of ecological restoration in the
face of the challenges of climate change will be
vital [242]. In addition we recommend further
research in the relatively new area of rewilding
[243] and investigation of assisted migration of
animals and how this might be used to alleviate
the impacts of climate change on the natural
world [244].
Acknowledgments Lina Boljka acknowledges support
from National Science Foundation (NSF) grant number
AGS-1643167.
Bibliography
1. Arrhenius S (1896) XXXI. On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the
ground. Lond Edinb Dublin Philos Mag J Sci
41(251):237–276
2. Tomas N, Per-Anders E (eds) (2013) Pathways to a
low-carbon economy: Version 2 of the global greenhouse gas abatement cost curve, McKinsey & Company. https://www.mckinsey.com.
3. The Bloomberg New Energy Finance, A fresh look
at the costs of reducing US carbon emissions (2010)
Carbon Markets-North America-Research Note.
https://about.bnef.com/blog/us-mac-curve-a-freshlook-at-the-costs-of-reducing-us-carbon-emissions/
4. Field CB, Barros VR, Mach KJ, Mastrandrea MD,
van Aalst RA, Adger WN, Arent DJ, Barnett J, et al.
(2014) Technical summary. In: Climate Change
2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part
A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of
Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of
the IPCC. Cambridge University Press
5. Harnung SE, Johnson MS (2012) Chemistry and the
environment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
6. Trenberth KE, Fasullo J, Kiehl J (2009) Earth’s
global energy budget. Bull Am Meteorol Soc
90(3):311–324
7. Stephens GL et al (2012) An update on Earth’s
energy balance in light of the latest global observations. Nat Geosci 5:691
8. Hodnebrog Ø et al (2013) Global warming potentials
and radiative efficiencies of halocarbons and related
compounds: a comprehensive review. Rev Geophys
51(2):300–378
9. UNFCCC (2009) Kyoto protocol reference manual
on accounting of emissions and assigned amount.
eSocialSciences
10. Stocker TF (ed) (2013) IPCC in climate change 2013:
the physical science basis. Contribution of working
group I to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge
11. Stevens B, Feingold G (2009) Untangling aerosol
effects on clouds and precipitation in a buffered system. Nature 461:607–613
318
Air Pollution and Climate Change: Sustainability, Restoration, and Ethical Implications
attempting to justify the continued use of polluting energy technologies [239]. There are three
important directions for future research. First, scientists should continue to develop environmentally beneficial energy technologies (e.g., solar,
wind, hydro energies) using life cycle analysis to
detail their environmental impact. Second, environmental ethicist should create a strong normative framework for our energy use. Third, leaders
need to better understand how to “use ethics to
motivate people to end dirty energy” ([239],
p. 401). The reasons for the dominating role of
dirty energy are complex (energy subsidies, ease,
infrastructure, stranded assets), and an incisive
description of the problem is central to solving
it. This effort would benefit from scientists, ethicists, and psychologists working together to
develop technologies that help individuals understand and act based on their personal ethics and
responsibilities.
Climate change is happening now and will
only become worse with time if the mitigation
goals are not met (i.e., if Paris Agreement [240]
goals are not met, the Earth’s system will go
beyond a tipping point [241], at which climate
change becomes largely irreversible). Therefore,
adaptation strategies become increasingly relevant. Further research on environmentally sustainable adaptation technologies will become
increasingly important. In addition it is crucial to
evaluate the relative effects (both ecological and
social) of adaptation technologies.
As the Earth system is nearing many tipping
points under global warming (e.g., accelerated Arctic sea ice loss; increasing sea level rise; increasing
deforestation of the rainforests in Amazon;
vanishing coral reefs; extinction of species [10]),
research is necessary to further understand the ecological tipping points and the implications of crossing them [241]. Furthermore, the future of some
fields of ecology such as ecological restoration will
be critically impacted by climate change. Research
is therefore needed to understand how these fields
can best adapt to this challenge. For instance, further development of ecological restoration in the
face of the challenges of climate change will be
vital [242]. In addition we recommend further
research in the relatively new area of rewilding
[243] and investigation of assisted migration of
animals and how this might be used to alleviate
the impacts of climate change on the natural
world [244].
Acknowledgments Lina Boljka acknowledges support
from National Science Foundation (NSF) grant number
AGS-1643167.
Bibliography
1. Arrhenius S (1896) XXXI. On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the
ground. Lond Edinb Dublin Philos Mag J Sci
41(251):237–276
2. Tomas N, Per-Anders E (eds) (2013) Pathways to a
low-carbon economy: Version 2 of the global greenhouse gas abatement cost curve, McKinsey & Company. https://www.mckinsey.com.
3. The Bloomberg New Energy Finance, A fresh look
at the costs of reducing US carbon emissions (2010)
Carbon Markets-North America-Research Note.
https://about.bnef.com/blog/us-mac-curve-a-freshlook-at-the-costs-of-reducing-us-carbon-emissions/
4. Field CB, Barros VR, Mach KJ, Mastrandrea MD,
van Aalst RA, Adger WN, Arent DJ, Barnett J, et al.
(2014) Technical summary. In: Climate Change
2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part
A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of
Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of
the IPCC. Cambridge University Press
5. Harnung SE, Johnson MS (2012) Chemistry and the
environment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
6. Trenberth KE, Fasullo J, Kiehl J (2009) Earth’s
global energy budget. Bull Am Meteorol Soc
90(3):311–324
7. Stephens GL et al (2012) An update on Earth’s
energy balance in light of the latest global observations. Nat Geosci 5:691
8. Hodnebrog Ø et al (2013) Global warming potentials
and radiative efficiencies of halocarbons and related
compounds: a comprehensive review. Rev Geophys
51(2):300–378
9. UNFCCC (2009) Kyoto protocol reference manual
on accounting of emissions and assigned amount.
eSocialSciences
10. Stocker TF (ed) (2013) IPCC in climate change 2013:
the physical science basis. Contribution of working
group I to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge
11. Stevens B, Feingold G (2009) Untangling aerosol
effects on clouds and precipitation in a buffered system. Nature 461:607–613
318
Air Pollution and Climate Change: Sustainability, Restoration, and Ethical Implications