municipalities with implementation. Nationwide,
the adaptation focus was on transport, coastal
protection, and roads.
Adaptation in Food Security and Agriculture
Climate change is a key challenge to food security, posing a serious threat to countries around the
world [197]. Crop yields are negatively affected
by climate change including extreme temperatures, changes in growing season and climate
zone, and variable rainfall [130]. Reduced production will cause higher prices and a higher risk
of shortages. Countries in many regions have
taken steps toward adaptation in the areas of agriculture and food security.
In North Africa, a study focusing on Morocco
documented the effects of water scarcity on social
stability [131]. For agriculture that depends on
rainfall, planting patterns and crop types have
shifted in response to climate change. Strategies
for reducing risk may include more accurate seasonal weather predictions and crop insurance [4].
In Australia, industries have relocated due to
climate change. Further, individual farmers have
moved or changed activities, such as changing
from grazing to cropping and changing crops,
due to long-term changes in rainfall [4].
In China, there are adaptive responses to climate change ranging from individual farmers to
the government. China is making efforts to
improve agricultural infrastructure, including
accelerating the construction of water-saving irrigation projects, restoring degraded farmland,
planting trees to combat desertification, and
developing water storage and utilization projects
in mountainous and desert areas [130]. Besides
government-level actions, individual farmers
have adopted water-saving technologies and new
crop varieties to reduce climate-related risks
[130].
Geoengineering with Solar Radiation
Management (SRM)
In the context of climate change adaptation,
geoengineering refers to technologies that are intentionally used to modify synoptic or global climate.
There are two major types of climate geoengineering:
solar radiation management (SRM), discussed here,
and carbon dioxide removal (CDR), discussed above
with mitigation strategies. Mitigation and adaptation
are not mutually exclusive.
Solar radiation management (SRM), also known
as solar engineering, is a category of climate engineering with the goal of increasing planetary albedo
and thereby reducing absorption of solar radiation at
the surface [132]. There are three main types of
SRM: albedo enhancement, space reflectors, and
stratospheric aerosol injection [118].
Cloud Albedo Enhancement
Cloud albedo enhancement can be achieved by
increasing the reflectivity of low-level maritime
clouds. The amount of condensed water in a cloud
is determined by the total amount of water present
and the temperature. If a cloud forms in an air
parcel with relatively more cloud condensation
nuclei (CCN), the same amount of liquid water
is distributed among more cloud droplets. While
the amount of liquid water may be the same as if
the cloud had formed in a clean atmosphere, the
surface area is not the same. Light scattering is
determined by the surface area of the water, not
the amount of water, and so the effect of increasing CNN is to make clouds “whiter” [133]. Artificially increasing CNN would cool the Earth due to
increasing the albedo; oddly, air pollution has the
same effect and has resulted in “global dimming,”
a reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching the
surface. The CCN to cloud albedo interaction is
known as the first indirect aerosol effect and is
also called the Twomey effect [134].
One of the techniques being discussed involves
spraying minute water droplets into the atmosphere from the ocean using high-volume atomizers or generating bubbles that would burst at the
surface, generating sea spray, by blowing air
through porous pipes, concepts first proposed by
Latham [135, 136]. The sea spray particles would
be dispersed in the atmosphere by turbulent diffusion and convection, increasing the albedo and
cooling the surface. Mixing could possibly be
enhanced by space-charge repulsion of likecharged particles. Although raw materials are
free and nonpolluting, the infrastructure would
need to be built [137]. While this approach
would in theory be able to counteract warming
Air Pollution and Climate Change: Sustainability, Restoration, and Ethical Implications
307
the adaptation focus was on transport, coastal
protection, and roads.
Adaptation in Food Security and Agriculture
Climate change is a key challenge to food security, posing a serious threat to countries around the
world [197]. Crop yields are negatively affected
by climate change including extreme temperatures, changes in growing season and climate
zone, and variable rainfall [130]. Reduced production will cause higher prices and a higher risk
of shortages. Countries in many regions have
taken steps toward adaptation in the areas of agriculture and food security.
In North Africa, a study focusing on Morocco
documented the effects of water scarcity on social
stability [131]. For agriculture that depends on
rainfall, planting patterns and crop types have
shifted in response to climate change. Strategies
for reducing risk may include more accurate seasonal weather predictions and crop insurance [4].
In Australia, industries have relocated due to
climate change. Further, individual farmers have
moved or changed activities, such as changing
from grazing to cropping and changing crops,
due to long-term changes in rainfall [4].
In China, there are adaptive responses to climate change ranging from individual farmers to
the government. China is making efforts to
improve agricultural infrastructure, including
accelerating the construction of water-saving irrigation projects, restoring degraded farmland,
planting trees to combat desertification, and
developing water storage and utilization projects
in mountainous and desert areas [130]. Besides
government-level actions, individual farmers
have adopted water-saving technologies and new
crop varieties to reduce climate-related risks
[130].
Geoengineering with Solar Radiation
Management (SRM)
In the context of climate change adaptation,
geoengineering refers to technologies that are intentionally used to modify synoptic or global climate.
There are two major types of climate geoengineering:
solar radiation management (SRM), discussed here,
and carbon dioxide removal (CDR), discussed above
with mitigation strategies. Mitigation and adaptation
are not mutually exclusive.
Solar radiation management (SRM), also known
as solar engineering, is a category of climate engineering with the goal of increasing planetary albedo
and thereby reducing absorption of solar radiation at
the surface [132]. There are three main types of
SRM: albedo enhancement, space reflectors, and
stratospheric aerosol injection [118].
Cloud Albedo Enhancement
Cloud albedo enhancement can be achieved by
increasing the reflectivity of low-level maritime
clouds. The amount of condensed water in a cloud
is determined by the total amount of water present
and the temperature. If a cloud forms in an air
parcel with relatively more cloud condensation
nuclei (CCN), the same amount of liquid water
is distributed among more cloud droplets. While
the amount of liquid water may be the same as if
the cloud had formed in a clean atmosphere, the
surface area is not the same. Light scattering is
determined by the surface area of the water, not
the amount of water, and so the effect of increasing CNN is to make clouds “whiter” [133]. Artificially increasing CNN would cool the Earth due to
increasing the albedo; oddly, air pollution has the
same effect and has resulted in “global dimming,”
a reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching the
surface. The CCN to cloud albedo interaction is
known as the first indirect aerosol effect and is
also called the Twomey effect [134].
One of the techniques being discussed involves
spraying minute water droplets into the atmosphere from the ocean using high-volume atomizers or generating bubbles that would burst at the
surface, generating sea spray, by blowing air
through porous pipes, concepts first proposed by
Latham [135, 136]. The sea spray particles would
be dispersed in the atmosphere by turbulent diffusion and convection, increasing the albedo and
cooling the surface. Mixing could possibly be
enhanced by space-charge repulsion of likecharged particles. Although raw materials are
free and nonpolluting, the infrastructure would
need to be built [137]. While this approach
would in theory be able to counteract warming
Air Pollution and Climate Change: Sustainability, Restoration, and Ethical Implications
307