[194]. The plan combines more than 50 projects
and consists of 68 project components estimated
to cost over $10.5 billion over a timeframe of
more than 35 years. Ecological restoration has
also been recognized as an important objective
in environmental policy. For instance, the
European Union is committed to restoring 15%
of degraded ecosystems in Europe by 2020
(European Commission 2011 [63]).
The most widely accepted definition of ecological restoration has been presented by the Society
for Ecological Restoration (SER) [64]: “Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded,
damaged, or destroyed.”
The definition provides important information
about the contents of ecological restoration. First,
the definition suggests that the act of ecological
restoration is an intentional human activity. The
restoration practitioner makes an active choice to
restore a particular area. The term assisted recovery
highlights this active role of the restorationist in
assisting the transition to a “healthy” or intact condition. Second, the definition provides vital information about the goal of restoration projects.
Restoration projects are not aimed solely at improving the state of a particular environment, but to
restore it to the pre-disturbance condition
[65]. Therefore, ecological restoration takes a strong
stance on appointing value to historical legacy
(often called historical fidelity) of the system prior
to human degradation and subsequent intervention.
Finally, the definition recognizes the destructive role
that humans have played in ecosystems and the
responsibility resulting from this destruction.
Ecological Restoration and Climate Change
Ecological restoration can play an important part in
the mitigation efforts toward climate change. This
is because the restoration of vegetation and soils –
especially of forest ecosystems – is considered safe
sinks to absorb carbon dioxide [68, 69]. However,
climate change also poses a threat to the practice of
ecological restoration by challenging its main
goals: historical fidelity and ecological integrity.
Climate change will likely make it difficult, if not
impossible, to return a damaged ecosystem back to
its previous pre-disturbed state. For example, if an
area was flooded by rising sea levels, it might not
be appropriate to attempt to return the area to the
temperate woodland which once stood there
[70]. Therefore, historical fidelity, which links the
present to the past, might not be an attainable goal
in the future dictated by climate change.
Will this render ecological restoration impossible
in the future? Philosopher Andrew Light predicts
that for some restoration practitioners, climate
change will relax the obligation to follow historical
reference conditions and for others, it will lead to an
existential crisis [71]. Looking at the predictions
provided by the IPCC, some warming is inevitable,
and even the most optimistic scenarios predict
warming of at least 2
C above pre-industrial levels,
which will likely lead to significant ecological consequences [10]. Light argues that as species and
entire ecosystems start moving as a consequence
of climate change, the definition of ecological restoration will also be on the move and will likely adapt.
However, how ecological restoration as a practice
will evolve along with the challenge of climate
change will likely have important societal and ecological consequences. If ecological restoration continues to hold fast to historical fidelity, it is likely that
it will not be a viable practice in the future. At the
other extreme, if the grip on historical fidelity is
loosened completely, ecological restoration might
transform into a practice of complete human ecological domination focused only on ecosystem services and goods aligned with utilitarian economic
ends leading to a future of designer ecosystems. As
pointed out by Harris et al., “it is one matter to watch
change happen in ecosystems and wonder how and
how much to intervene, and quite another to become
a determining agent in that change” [70].
Mitigation and Adaptation
Relations Between Climate-Related Risk,
Hazard, Vulnerability, and Exposure
There is a close relationship between climaterelated risk, hazard, vulnerability, and exposure
(Fig. 9). The risks of climate-related impacts
include the changes in the climate system and
socioeconomic that result from the interactions
between climate-related hazards, vulnerability,
and exposure of human and natural systems
[4]. The change of climate system consists of
Air Pollution and Climate Change: Sustainability, Restoration, and Ethical Implications
299
and consists of 68 project components estimated
to cost over $10.5 billion over a timeframe of
more than 35 years. Ecological restoration has
also been recognized as an important objective
in environmental policy. For instance, the
European Union is committed to restoring 15%
of degraded ecosystems in Europe by 2020
(European Commission 2011 [63]).
The most widely accepted definition of ecological restoration has been presented by the Society
for Ecological Restoration (SER) [64]: “Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded,
damaged, or destroyed.”
The definition provides important information
about the contents of ecological restoration. First,
the definition suggests that the act of ecological
restoration is an intentional human activity. The
restoration practitioner makes an active choice to
restore a particular area. The term assisted recovery
highlights this active role of the restorationist in
assisting the transition to a “healthy” or intact condition. Second, the definition provides vital information about the goal of restoration projects.
Restoration projects are not aimed solely at improving the state of a particular environment, but to
restore it to the pre-disturbance condition
[65]. Therefore, ecological restoration takes a strong
stance on appointing value to historical legacy
(often called historical fidelity) of the system prior
to human degradation and subsequent intervention.
Finally, the definition recognizes the destructive role
that humans have played in ecosystems and the
responsibility resulting from this destruction.
Ecological Restoration and Climate Change
Ecological restoration can play an important part in
the mitigation efforts toward climate change. This
is because the restoration of vegetation and soils –
especially of forest ecosystems – is considered safe
sinks to absorb carbon dioxide [68, 69]. However,
climate change also poses a threat to the practice of
ecological restoration by challenging its main
goals: historical fidelity and ecological integrity.
Climate change will likely make it difficult, if not
impossible, to return a damaged ecosystem back to
its previous pre-disturbed state. For example, if an
area was flooded by rising sea levels, it might not
be appropriate to attempt to return the area to the
temperate woodland which once stood there
[70]. Therefore, historical fidelity, which links the
present to the past, might not be an attainable goal
in the future dictated by climate change.
Will this render ecological restoration impossible
in the future? Philosopher Andrew Light predicts
that for some restoration practitioners, climate
change will relax the obligation to follow historical
reference conditions and for others, it will lead to an
existential crisis [71]. Looking at the predictions
provided by the IPCC, some warming is inevitable,
and even the most optimistic scenarios predict
warming of at least 2
C above pre-industrial levels,
which will likely lead to significant ecological consequences [10]. Light argues that as species and
entire ecosystems start moving as a consequence
of climate change, the definition of ecological restoration will also be on the move and will likely adapt.
However, how ecological restoration as a practice
will evolve along with the challenge of climate
change will likely have important societal and ecological consequences. If ecological restoration continues to hold fast to historical fidelity, it is likely that
it will not be a viable practice in the future. At the
other extreme, if the grip on historical fidelity is
loosened completely, ecological restoration might
transform into a practice of complete human ecological domination focused only on ecosystem services and goods aligned with utilitarian economic
ends leading to a future of designer ecosystems. As
pointed out by Harris et al., “it is one matter to watch
change happen in ecosystems and wonder how and
how much to intervene, and quite another to become
a determining agent in that change” [70].
Mitigation and Adaptation
Relations Between Climate-Related Risk,
Hazard, Vulnerability, and Exposure
There is a close relationship between climaterelated risk, hazard, vulnerability, and exposure
(Fig. 9). The risks of climate-related impacts
include the changes in the climate system and
socioeconomic that result from the interactions
between climate-related hazards, vulnerability,
and exposure of human and natural systems
[4]. The change of climate system consists of
Air Pollution and Climate Change: Sustainability, Restoration, and Ethical Implications
299