ability to burn brightly, the demand for whale oil
spurred the whaling industry and caused it to go
“through a spectacular cycle of growth and
decline” in the nineteenth century [35]. The number of whales and whaling ships shows a classic
predator-prey dynamic, and the output of whale
oil follows a bell-shaped curve.
Relationship Between Greenhouse Gas
Emission and Economic Development
Economic externalities are those costs born not by
the buyer or seller but by society [170]. Climate
change and air pollution are two good examples of
external costs: those who create the pollution do
not pay, and the costs are imposed on everyone.
The 2006 Stern Report [51] presupposes that
atmospheric greenhouse gas levels should be stabilized between 450 and 550 ppm of CO 2 equivalent to avoid catastrophic ecological collapse and
severe negative impacts for society. This concept
involves converting other gases to an equivalent
amount of CO 2 , denoted CO 2 e. In 2006, the level
of CO 2 e was already at 430 ppm [20]. To accelerate
the low-carbon energy transition from coal to
renewable energy sources, governments and industries need to develop and distribute environmentfriendly technologies. Renewable energy sources
(solar, wind, geothermal, and hydroelectric) are
currently the most sustainable energy sources
because there are no direct emissions of carbon
dioxide and resource potentials are virtually
unlimited [52].
Climate action is a major objective in the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) with the idea that “urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts” is needed
[53]. The United Nations wrote that “global
warming is causing long-lasting changes to our
climate system, which threatens irreversible consequences if we do not take action now” [54].
Jevon’s Paradox
Jevon’s paradox was an observation about energy
consumption and energy efficiency made by the
English economist William Stanley Jevons in his
book The Coal Question in 1865 [55]. Jevons
observed that the production and consumption of
coal increased at the same time as the use of coal
became more efficient [55]. In general, improvements in efficiency increase consumption rather
than reduce it due to subsequent increased
demand [56]. However, environmentalists, industry, and government often disregard this paradox
when trying to reduce energy consumption by
increasing efficiency.
A clear modern-day example of Jevon’s paradox is the “paperless office.” In theory, increasing
use of computers and electronic storage of data
should reduce paper usage eventually leading to a
“paperless” office environment. However, contrary to the expectation, consumption of paper
has increased [56].
Jevon’s paradox has important implications for
the sustainability of energy resources [57]. One
potential solution to avoid Jevon’s paradox is
governmental regulation (e.g., taxing higher consumption, offering discounts for reducing consumption, etc.) coupled with energy efficiency.
Environmental Management and
Climate Change
Preservation
For the past century, preservation has been the
traditional environmental management strategy
around the world [175]. The core idea of preservation has been captured by the Wilderness Act
set by the US Congress in 1964 which defines
wilderness as follows:
A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where
man and his own works dominate the landscape, is
hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its
community of life are untrammelled by man, where
man himself is a visitor who does not remain.
(Wilderness Act of 1964) [174]
Thus, preservation attempts to protect natural
areas from human influence and places a high
value on their “naturalness” and “wildness” and
the independence of an area from human
impact [59].
Habitat
As human populations and consumption grow,
areas formerly used for animal habitats are being
converted into areas used for human interest such
Air Pollution and Climate Change: Sustainability, Restoration, and Ethical Implications
297
spurred the whaling industry and caused it to go
“through a spectacular cycle of growth and
decline” in the nineteenth century [35]. The number of whales and whaling ships shows a classic
predator-prey dynamic, and the output of whale
oil follows a bell-shaped curve.
Relationship Between Greenhouse Gas
Emission and Economic Development
Economic externalities are those costs born not by
the buyer or seller but by society [170]. Climate
change and air pollution are two good examples of
external costs: those who create the pollution do
not pay, and the costs are imposed on everyone.
The 2006 Stern Report [51] presupposes that
atmospheric greenhouse gas levels should be stabilized between 450 and 550 ppm of CO 2 equivalent to avoid catastrophic ecological collapse and
severe negative impacts for society. This concept
involves converting other gases to an equivalent
amount of CO 2 , denoted CO 2 e. In 2006, the level
of CO 2 e was already at 430 ppm [20]. To accelerate
the low-carbon energy transition from coal to
renewable energy sources, governments and industries need to develop and distribute environmentfriendly technologies. Renewable energy sources
(solar, wind, geothermal, and hydroelectric) are
currently the most sustainable energy sources
because there are no direct emissions of carbon
dioxide and resource potentials are virtually
unlimited [52].
Climate action is a major objective in the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) with the idea that “urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts” is needed
[53]. The United Nations wrote that “global
warming is causing long-lasting changes to our
climate system, which threatens irreversible consequences if we do not take action now” [54].
Jevon’s Paradox
Jevon’s paradox was an observation about energy
consumption and energy efficiency made by the
English economist William Stanley Jevons in his
book The Coal Question in 1865 [55]. Jevons
observed that the production and consumption of
coal increased at the same time as the use of coal
became more efficient [55]. In general, improvements in efficiency increase consumption rather
than reduce it due to subsequent increased
demand [56]. However, environmentalists, industry, and government often disregard this paradox
when trying to reduce energy consumption by
increasing efficiency.
A clear modern-day example of Jevon’s paradox is the “paperless office.” In theory, increasing
use of computers and electronic storage of data
should reduce paper usage eventually leading to a
“paperless” office environment. However, contrary to the expectation, consumption of paper
has increased [56].
Jevon’s paradox has important implications for
the sustainability of energy resources [57]. One
potential solution to avoid Jevon’s paradox is
governmental regulation (e.g., taxing higher consumption, offering discounts for reducing consumption, etc.) coupled with energy efficiency.
Environmental Management and
Climate Change
Preservation
For the past century, preservation has been the
traditional environmental management strategy
around the world [175]. The core idea of preservation has been captured by the Wilderness Act
set by the US Congress in 1964 which defines
wilderness as follows:
A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where
man and his own works dominate the landscape, is
hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its
community of life are untrammelled by man, where
man himself is a visitor who does not remain.
(Wilderness Act of 1964) [174]
Thus, preservation attempts to protect natural
areas from human influence and places a high
value on their “naturalness” and “wildness” and
the independence of an area from human
impact [59].
Habitat
As human populations and consumption grow,
areas formerly used for animal habitats are being
converted into areas used for human interest such
Air Pollution and Climate Change: Sustainability, Restoration, and Ethical Implications
297