improved (i.e., lower emission) technologies for
transport, industry and domestic heating/cooking
will determine local atmospheric composition
over the coming decade. Dramatic improvements
have been shown to be possible in cities when
suitably stringent emission controls are implemented, for example, during the Beijing Olympics
in 2008 [14, 36]. A key issue for future urban
atmospheric composition processes is the potentially changing climate within which the air chemistry takes place, and the global perspective of
cities as sources of a range of pollutants into the
wider atmosphere. A number of the processes
outlined above are strongly temperaturedependent, in particular the stability of PAN and
other organic nitrates which sequester NO x , and
the equilibria between the condensed and vapor
phases for many of the secondary components of
PM, in particular nitrate. Changed temperatures
will also affect emission sources, including evaporative losses of fuels, and emissions of biogenic
VOCs, many of which are strongly (and nonlinearly) temperature-dependent, and has been
suggested to affect the prevalence of the meteorological patterns which favor ozone pollution episodes, such as the western European heatwave of
2003 [37]. These latter effects may particularly
influence the background atmospheric composition (ozone levels) upon which localized urban
influences build. Urban heat island effects already
drive some of these changes on a local scale.
A potentially larger climate-related impact may
however arise from the widespread adoption of
non-fossil-fuel-based transportation systems,
driven by carbon emission considerations. Should
this occur, our currently low understanding of the
non-exhaust contributions to urban air pollution
will assume much greater importance.
Bibliography
Primary Literature
1. United Nations Department of Economic and Social
Affairs/Population Division (2008) World urbanization prospects: the 2007 revision. United Nations,
New York
2. Fenger J (1999) Urban air quality. Atmos Environ
33:4877–4900
3. Mage D, Ozolins G, Peterson P, Webster A,
Orthofer R, Vandeweerd V, Gwynne M (1996) Urban
air pollution in megacities of the world. Atmos Environ 30:681–686
4. Brimblecombe P (1987) The big smoke. Methuen,
London
5. Salmond JA, McKendry IG (2009) Influences of meteorology on air pollution concentrations and processes
in urban areas. In: Hester RE, Harrison RM (eds) Air
quality in urban environments. Issues in environmental science and technology, vol 28. Royal Society of
Chemistry, London, pp 23–41
6. Thorpe AJ, Harrison RM, Boulter PG, McRae IS
(2007) Estimation of particle resuspension source
strength on a major London road. Atmos Environ
41:8007–8020
7. Molina LT, Molina MJ (2004) Improving air quality in
megacities Mexico city case study. Ann N Y Acad Sci
1023:142–158
8. Ding A, Wang T, Zhao M, Wang T, Li Z (2004) Simulation of sea-land breezes and a discussion of their
implications on the transport of air pollution during a
multi-day ozone episode in the Pearl river delta of
China. Atmos Environ 39:6737–6750
9. Vardoulakis S, Fisher BEA, Pericleous K, GonzalezFlesca N (2003) Modelling air quality in street canyons: a review. Atmos Environ 37:155–182
10. Lee JD, Moller SJ, Read KA, Lewis AC, Mendes L,
Carpenter LJ (2009) Year-round measurements of
nitrogen oxides and ozone in the tropical north Atlantic marine boundary layer. J Geophys Res 114:
D21302. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD011878
11. Read KA, Lee JD, Lewis AC, Moller SJ, Mendes L,
Carpenter LJ (2009) Intra-annual cycles of NMVOC in
the tropical marine boundary layer and their use for
interpreting seasonal variability in CO. J Geophys Res
114:D21303. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD011879
12. United Nations Environment Programme (2007) Beijing 2008 Olympic games – an environmental review.
Report of the United Nations Environment Programme. United Nations Environment Programme,
Nairobi
13. Gros V, Sciare J, Yu T (2007) Air-quality measurements in megacities: focus on gaseous organic and
particulate pollutants and comparison between two
contrasted cities, Paris and Beijing. C R Geoscience
339:764–774
14. Wang T et al (2010) Air quality during the 2008
Beijing Olympics: secondary pollutants and regional
impact. Atmos Chem Phys 10:7603–7615
15. Abam FI, Unachukwu GO (2009) Vehicular emissions
and air quality standards in Nigeria. Eur J Sci Res
34:550–560
16. Raheem AMOA, Adekola FA, Obioh IO (2009) The
seasonal variation of the concentrations of ozone, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides in two Nigerian cities.
Environ Model Assess 14:497–509
17. World Health Organisation (2006) Air quality guidelines. Global update 2005. Particulate matter, ozone,
Urban Atmospheric Composition Processes
227
transport, industry and domestic heating/cooking
will determine local atmospheric composition
over the coming decade. Dramatic improvements
have been shown to be possible in cities when
suitably stringent emission controls are implemented, for example, during the Beijing Olympics
in 2008 [14, 36]. A key issue for future urban
atmospheric composition processes is the potentially changing climate within which the air chemistry takes place, and the global perspective of
cities as sources of a range of pollutants into the
wider atmosphere. A number of the processes
outlined above are strongly temperaturedependent, in particular the stability of PAN and
other organic nitrates which sequester NO x , and
the equilibria between the condensed and vapor
phases for many of the secondary components of
PM, in particular nitrate. Changed temperatures
will also affect emission sources, including evaporative losses of fuels, and emissions of biogenic
VOCs, many of which are strongly (and nonlinearly) temperature-dependent, and has been
suggested to affect the prevalence of the meteorological patterns which favor ozone pollution episodes, such as the western European heatwave of
2003 [37]. These latter effects may particularly
influence the background atmospheric composition (ozone levels) upon which localized urban
influences build. Urban heat island effects already
drive some of these changes on a local scale.
A potentially larger climate-related impact may
however arise from the widespread adoption of
non-fossil-fuel-based transportation systems,
driven by carbon emission considerations. Should
this occur, our currently low understanding of the
non-exhaust contributions to urban air pollution
will assume much greater importance.
Bibliography
Primary Literature
1. United Nations Department of Economic and Social
Affairs/Population Division (2008) World urbanization prospects: the 2007 revision. United Nations,
New York
2. Fenger J (1999) Urban air quality. Atmos Environ
33:4877–4900
3. Mage D, Ozolins G, Peterson P, Webster A,
Orthofer R, Vandeweerd V, Gwynne M (1996) Urban
air pollution in megacities of the world. Atmos Environ 30:681–686
4. Brimblecombe P (1987) The big smoke. Methuen,
London
5. Salmond JA, McKendry IG (2009) Influences of meteorology on air pollution concentrations and processes
in urban areas. In: Hester RE, Harrison RM (eds) Air
quality in urban environments. Issues in environmental science and technology, vol 28. Royal Society of
Chemistry, London, pp 23–41
6. Thorpe AJ, Harrison RM, Boulter PG, McRae IS
(2007) Estimation of particle resuspension source
strength on a major London road. Atmos Environ
41:8007–8020
7. Molina LT, Molina MJ (2004) Improving air quality in
megacities Mexico city case study. Ann N Y Acad Sci
1023:142–158
8. Ding A, Wang T, Zhao M, Wang T, Li Z (2004) Simulation of sea-land breezes and a discussion of their
implications on the transport of air pollution during a
multi-day ozone episode in the Pearl river delta of
China. Atmos Environ 39:6737–6750
9. Vardoulakis S, Fisher BEA, Pericleous K, GonzalezFlesca N (2003) Modelling air quality in street canyons: a review. Atmos Environ 37:155–182
10. Lee JD, Moller SJ, Read KA, Lewis AC, Mendes L,
Carpenter LJ (2009) Year-round measurements of
nitrogen oxides and ozone in the tropical north Atlantic marine boundary layer. J Geophys Res 114:
D21302. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD011878
11. Read KA, Lee JD, Lewis AC, Moller SJ, Mendes L,
Carpenter LJ (2009) Intra-annual cycles of NMVOC in
the tropical marine boundary layer and their use for
interpreting seasonal variability in CO. J Geophys Res
114:D21303. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD011879
12. United Nations Environment Programme (2007) Beijing 2008 Olympic games – an environmental review.
Report of the United Nations Environment Programme. United Nations Environment Programme,
Nairobi
13. Gros V, Sciare J, Yu T (2007) Air-quality measurements in megacities: focus on gaseous organic and
particulate pollutants and comparison between two
contrasted cities, Paris and Beijing. C R Geoscience
339:764–774
14. Wang T et al (2010) Air quality during the 2008
Beijing Olympics: secondary pollutants and regional
impact. Atmos Chem Phys 10:7603–7615
15. Abam FI, Unachukwu GO (2009) Vehicular emissions
and air quality standards in Nigeria. Eur J Sci Res
34:550–560
16. Raheem AMOA, Adekola FA, Obioh IO (2009) The
seasonal variation of the concentrations of ozone, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides in two Nigerian cities.
Environ Model Assess 14:497–509
17. World Health Organisation (2006) Air quality guidelines. Global update 2005. Particulate matter, ozone,
Urban Atmospheric Composition Processes
227