viii Contents
2.2.2 Sinking of the Sleipner A offshore
platform, Norway, 1991 33
2.2.3 Collapse of a 13-storey apartment
building in Shanghai, China 2009 34
2.3 Wrong estimation of loading 36
2.3.1 Roof collapses due to snow loading
in Belgium, winter 2010-2011 36
2.3.2 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami,
Japan, March 11, 2011 37
2.3.3 Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Suspension
Bridge, USA, 7 November 1940 37
2.3.4 Hyatt Regency walkway collapse,
Kansas City, USA, 17 July 1981 38
2.3.5 Thermal loading on thin marble façade
cladding, Grande Arche, Paris 39
2.4 Inappropriate estimation of creep effects 39
2.5 Inappropriate mix design 41
2.5.1 Inappropriate selection of concrete type 41
2.5.2 Bad mix design 42
References 43
3 Errors during casting
45
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Errors during proportioning 45
3.2.1 Wrongly proportioned accelerator 47
3.2.2 Wrongly proportioned plasticizer 47
3.3 Inappropriate mixing 48
3.4 Aggressive substances within the mix 48
3.4.1 Sulfates 49
3.4.2 Chlorides 50
3.4.3 Alkalis and potentially reactive aggregates 50
3.4.4 Free lime 50
3.4.5 Swelling aggregates 51
3.5 Wrong placement of reinforcement 52
3.5.1 Wrong amount of reinforcement 53
3.5.2 Wrong position of reinforcement 53
3.5.3 Too dense reinforcement 54
3.5.4 Insufficient cover thickness 55
3.5.5 Wrong position of prestressing cables 55
3.6 Bad compaction and other problems during casting 57