x Contents
4.4.1.3 Importance of evolving
mechanical properties 87
4.4.2 Influencing parameters 90
4.4.2.1 Parameters related to the
concrete composition 90
4.4.2.2 Geometrical parameters 91
4.4.2.3 Atmospheric parameters 91
4.4.2.4 Technological parameters
during execution 92
4.4.3 Mitigation 92
4.4.4 Example 93
References 95
5 Actions during service
99
5.1 Mechanical actions 99
5.1.1 Direct loading and impact 99
5.1.2 Differential settlements 102
5.2 Physical actions 102
5.2.1 Frost damage 102
5.2.1.1 Mechanism 102
5.2.1.2 Influencing parameters 107
5.2.1.3 Mitigation 109
5.2.1.4 Example 109
5.2.2 Frost in combination with
de-icing salts (salt scaling) 109
5.2.2.1 Mechanism 109
5.2.2.2 Influencing parameters 112
5.2.2.3 Mitigation 114
5.2.2.4 Example 114
5.2.3 Shrinkage 114
5.2.4 Erosion 116
5.2.4.1 Erosion by cavitation 116
5.2.4.2 Erosion by abrasion 117
5.2.5 Thermal effects 118
5.2.5.1 Temperature gradients 118
5.2.5.2 Cryogenic conditions 119
5.2.5.3 High temperature and fire 122
5.2.6 Crystallisation and discolouring
due to moisture movement 130
5.2.7 Pop-outs 131